The effect of exposure to radiofrequency fields on cancer risk in the
general and working population: A systematic review of human
observational studies – Part II: Less researched outcomes
Karipidis K, Baaken D, Loney T, Blettner M, Mate R, Brzozek C, Elwood M, Narh C, Orsini N, Röösli M, Paulo MS, Lagorio S. The effect of exposure to radiofrequency fields on cancer risk in the general and working population: A systematic review of human observational studies – Part II: Less researched outcomes. Environment International, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2025.109274.
Abstract
Background
In the framework of the World Health Organization assessment of health effects of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF), we have conducted a systematic review of human observational studies on the association between exposure to RF-EMF and risk of neoplastic diseases. Due to the extremely large number of included exposure types/settings and neoplasm combinations, we decided to present the review findings in two separate papers. In the first one we addressed the most investigated exposure-outcome pairs (e.g. glioma, meningioma, acoustic neuroma in relation to mobile phone use, or risk childhood leukemia in relation to environmental exposure from fixed-site transmitters) (Karipidis et al., 2024). Here, we report on less researched neoplasms, which include lymphohematopoietic system tumours, thyroid cancer and oral cavity/pharynx cancer, in relation to wireless phone use, or occupational RF exposure.
Methods
Eligibility criteria: We included cohort and case-control studies of neoplasia risks in relation to three types of exposure to RF-EMF: 1. exposure from wireless phone use; 2. environmental exposure from fixed-site transmitters; 3. occupational exposures. In the current paper, we focus on less researched neoplasms including leukaemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and thyroid cancer in mobile phone users; lymphohematopoietic system tumours and oral cavity/pharynx cancer in exposed workers. We focussed on investigations of specific neoplasms in relation to specific exposure sources (termed exposure-outcome pair, abbreviated E-O pairs), noting that a single article may address multiple E-O pairs. Information sources: Eligible studies were identified by predefined literature searches through Medline, Embase, and EMF-Portal. Risk-of-bias (RoB) assessment: We used a tailored version of the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) RoB tool to evaluate each study’s internal validity. Then, the studies were classified into three tiers according to their overall potential for bias (low, moderate and high) in selected, predefined and relevant bias domains. Data synthesis: We synthesized the study results using random effects restricted maximum likelihood (REML) models. Evidence assessment: Confidence in evidence was assessed according to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) approach.
Results
We included 26 articles, which were published between 1988 and 2019, with participants from 10 countries, reporting on 143 different E-O pairs, including 65 different types of neoplasms. Of these, 19 E-O pairs satisfied the criteria for inclusion in quantitative syntheses of the evidence regarding the risks of leukaemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma or thyroid cancer in relation to mobile phone use, and the risks of lymphohematopoietic system tumours or oral cavity/pharynx cancer following occupational exposure to RF-EMF. RF-EMF exposure from mobile phones (ever or regular use vs no or non-regular use) was not associated with an increased risk of leukaemia [meta-estimate of the relative risk (mRR) = 0.99, 95 % CI 0.91–1.07, 4 studies), non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (mRR = 0.99, 95 % CI = 0.92–1.06, 5 studies), or thyroid cancer (mRR = 1.05, 95 % CI = 0.88–1.26, 3 studies). Long-term (10 + years) mobile phone use was also not associated with risk of leukaemia (mRR = 1.03, 95 % CI 0.85–1.24, 3 studies), non-Hodgkin lymphoma (mRR = 0.99, 95 % CI 0.86–1.15, 3 studies), or thyroid cancer (no pooled estimate given the small number of studies). There were not sufficient studies of any specific neoplasms to perform dose–response meta-analyses for either cumulative call time or cumulative number of calls; individual studies did not show statistically significant associations between lifetime intensity of mobile phone use and any specific neoplasm. Occupational RF-EMF exposure (exposed vs unexposed) was not associated with an increased risk of lymphohematopoietic system tumours (mRR = 1.03, 95 % CI = 0.87–1.28, 4 studies) or oral cavity/pharynx cancer (mRR = 0.68, 95 % CI 0.42–1.11, 3 studies). There were not sufficient studies of any specific neoplasms to perform meta-analysis on the intensity or duration of occupational RF-EMF exposure; individual studies did not show statistically significant associations with either of those exposure metrics and any specific neoplasms. The small number of studies, and of exposed cases in some instances, hampered the assessment of the statistical heterogeneity in findings across studies in the meta-analyses. Based on the summary risk of bias, most studies included in the quantitative evidence syntheses were classified at moderate risk of bias. The most critical issue was exposure information bias, especially for occupational studies where the exposure characterization was rated at high risk of bias for all included studies. Outcome information bias was an issue in mortality-based occupational cohort studies investigating non-rapidly fatal neoplasms. Further, the healthy subscriber effect, and (at a lesser extent) the healthy worker effect, were identified as plausible explanations of the decreased risks observed in some studies. The association of RF-EMF exposure from wireless phone use, or workplace equipment/devices, with other important neoplasms was reported by only one or two studies per tumour, so no quantitative evidence syntheses were conducted on these outcomes. It is noted that there were generally no statistically significant exposure-outcome associations for any combinations, independently of the exposure metric and level, with a few studies reporting decreased risks (especially for smoking-related cancers). There was only one study which assessed the effect of RF-EMF exposure from fixed-site transmitters on less researched neoplasms and it reported no statistically significant associations between exposure from base stations and risk of lymphomas overall, lymphoma subtypes, or chronic lymphatic leukaemia in adults.
Conclusions
For near field RF-EMF exposure to the head from mobile phones, there was low certainty of evidence that it does not increase the risk of leukaemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma or thyroid cancer. For occupational RF-EMF exposure, there was very low certainty of evidence that it does not increase the risk of lymphohematopoietic system tumours or oral cavity/pharynx cancer. There was not sufficient evidence to assess the effect of whole-body far-field RF-EMF exposure from fixed-site transmitters (broadcasting antennas or base stations), or the effect of RF-EMF from any source on any other important neoplasms.
Other
This project was commissioned and partially funded by the World Health Organization (WHO). Co-financing was provided by the New Zealand Ministry of Health; the Istituto Superiore di Sanità in its capacity as a WHO Collaborating Centre for Radiation and Health; and ARPANSA as a WHO Collaborating Centre for Radiation Protection. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42021236798. Published protocol: [(Lagorio et al., 2021) DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106828].
Excerpts
"Our conclusive statements, formulated in accordance with the GRADE guidelines 26 (Santesso et al., 2020), are provided below. - For
near field RF-EMF exposure to the head from mobile phones, there was
low certainty of evidence that it does not increase the risk of
leukaemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma or thyroid cancer.
- For
occupational RF-EMF exposure, there was very low certainty of evidence
that it does not increase the risk of lymphohematopoietic system tumours
or risk of oral cavity/pharynx cancer.
- There
was not sufficient evidence to assess whole-body far-field RF-EMF
exposure from fixed-site transmitters (broadcasting antennas or base
stations) or the effect of exposure to RF-EMF (from any source) on any
other important neoplasms."
"The main limitation in this second paper on findings from our systematic
review was the small number of studies per tumour type (which in some
ways is inherent to this paper, that is dedicated to less researched
neoplasms). A formal synthesis of the evidence was only possible for a
few types of neoplasms, mainly different types of lymphohematopoietic
system tumours, as well as thyroid and oral cavity/pharynx cancers.
There were 54 types of neoplasms which were investigated in only one or
two studies and did not satisfy the criteria for a quantitative
synthesis of the evidence, but none of these showed evidence of an
effect of RF EMF."
"Looking at specific sources of RF-EMF exposure, the majority of the
evidence was on mobile phone use. There was only sufficient evidence to
assess the effect of ever (or regular) use vs no (or
non-regular) use, as well as of long-term (10 + years) use. There was
not sufficient evidence on lifetime intensity of mobile phone use,
including cumulative call time and cumulative number of calls, so we
could not conduct a dose–response analysis."
Declaration of competing interest
The
authors declare the following financial interests/personal
relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Mark Elwood has given expert advice on topics in electromagnetic fields
and health, and on the objective interpretation of epidemiological and
other scientific information, over many years to individuals and groups,
including government ministries, environmental regulators, community
groups, commercial organisations, and formal inquiries by government and
professional groups including parliamentary and legal proceedings. Some
of this work has been financially supported, by universities, health
care organisations, research bodies, or by government, professional or
commercial groups. Some work has been reported ‘blind’, with the client
being unidentified. Susanna Lagorio was principal investigator (April
2019 – March 2020) of the research project “BRiC 2018/06 − Systematic
reviews of exposure to radiofrequency fields and cancer”, supported by
the Italian Workers’ Compensation Authority, a public no-profit entity
(grant code I85B19000120005). Her employment duties involved provision
of advice on health hazards from exposure to RF-EMF to the Italian
Ministry of Health and Higher Health Council (she retired on August 1st,
2023). Martin Röösli’s research is entirely funded by public entities
or not for profit foundations. He has served as advisor on potential
health effects of exposure to non-ionizing radiation to several national
and international public advisory and research steering groups,
including the World Health Organization, the International Agency for
Research on Cancer, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing
Radiation Protection, the Swiss Government (member of the working group
“Mobile phone and radiation” and chair of the expert group BERENIS), the
German Radiation Protection Commission (member of the committee
Non-ionizing Radiation (A6) and member of the working group 5G (A630))
and the Independent Expert Group of the Swedish Radiation Safety
Authority. From 2011 to 2018, M.R. was an unpaid member of the
foundation board of the Swiss Research Foundation for Electricity and
Mobile Communication, a non-profit research foundation at ETH Zurich.
Neither industry nor nongovernmental organizations are represented on
the scientific board of the foundation. Chris Brzozek and Rohan Mate as
part of their employment are involved in the provision of advice to the
Australian Commonwealth Government, Australian States and Territories
and the general public on the risks and health effects of exposure to
ionising and non-ionising radiation.
The other authors declare that they have no known conflicts of interest.
Open access paper: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041202500025X
--
Histopathologic
effects of mobile phone radiation exposure on the testes and sperm
parameters: a systematic literature review of animal studies
Assefa EM, Abdu SM. Histopathologic effects of mobile phone radiation
exposure on the testes and sperm parameters: a systematic literature
review of animal studies. Front Reprod Health. 2025 Jan 17;6:1515166.
doi: 10.3389/frph.2024.1515166.
Abstract
Introduction:
Male infertility, often attributed to insufficient production of
healthy and active sperm, can be exacerbated by electromagnetic
radiation emitted from mobile phones, which disrupts normal
spermatogenesis and leads to a notable decline in sperm quality. The
main targets of mobile phone-induced damage in the testes are Leydig
cells, seminiferous tubules, and sperm cells. The aim of this systematic
literature review is to identify histopathological changes in the
testes due to mobile phone radiation exposure and to examine its effects
on sperm parameters in experimental animals.
Methods: In this
systematic review, an extensive literature search was conducted across
databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, Hinari, and Google scholar.
Results:
A total of 752 studies were identified for screening, and 18 studies
were deemed eligible for data extraction. Studies have identified
histopathological alterations in testicular tissue caused by mobile
phone radiation, such as reduced seminiferous tubule diameter, tunica
albuginea and germinal epithelial thickness, Leydig cell hypoplasia, and
increased intertubular space. Consistent exposure to mobile phone
radiation has been shown to significantly reduce sperm count, motility,
and viability, while also increasing abnormal sperm morphology in male
rats, mice, and rabbits.
Conclusion: Animal studies indicate that
electromagnetic radiation from mobile phones can negatively impact
testicular tissue and sperm parameters, including sperm count, motility,
viability, and morphology. As a precaution, preventive measures are
recommended to minimize potential risks from mobile phone exposure, and
further research is needed to fully understand its effects on human
reproductive health.
Open access paper: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/reproductive-health/articles/10.3389/frph.2024.1515166
--
Laptop and tablet use and their
influence on total motile sperm count parameters: are laptops linked to
infertility in Jamaican men?
Sterling L, Carroll K, Harris LR. Laptop and tablet use and their
influence on total motile sperm count parameters: are laptops linked to
infertility in Jamaican men? Rev Int Androl. 2024 Dec;22(4):25-32. doi:
10.22514/j.androl.2024.027.
Abstract
Background: This study aims to determine the impact of laptop and tablet use on total motile sperm count (TMSC) in men being investigated for assisted reproduction.
Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on 156 men attending a fertility clinic in Jamaica. Routine semen analyses were performed and parameters specific to TMSC assessed. All data analyses were performed using SPSS Version 26. Logistic regression analyses were performed to independently predict the impact of quantifiable measures of laptop and tablet use. The main outcome measures were the parameters associated with TMSC.
Results: Overall, 64% of the participants reported using laptops and 36% reported using tablets. There was a significant relationship seen with time spent on laptops and time trying to conceive (p = 0.015). Regression analyses showed that persons who used their laptops for 2 to 5 h daily were approximately 16 times (adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) = 15.9; 95% Confidence Interval (CI), 2.5-103.3, p = 0.004) more likely to be diagnosed with low semen volume (hypospermia). Although no significant association was found between total motile sperm count (TMSC) and laptop use, a trend towards significance was observed with high laptop use (p = 0.052), suggesting potential implications for TMSC as a predictor of pregnancy outcomes.
Conclusions: Our findings highlight the need for clinicians to take into consideration wireless device usage in men undergoing fertility investigations.
Open access paper: https://files.intandro.com/files/article/20241230-28/pdf/RIA20240615001.pdf
--
A review of effects of electromagnetic fields on
ageing and ageing dependent bioeffects of electromagnetic fields
Wei X, Huang Y, Sun C. A review of effects of electromagnetic fields on
ageing and ageing dependent bioeffects of electromagnetic fields. Sci
Total Environ. 2025 Jan 15;963:178491. doi:
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.178491.
Abstract
Thanks to the progress of science and technology, human life expectancy
has dramatically increased in the past few decades, but accompanied by
rapid ageing of population, resulting in increased burden on society. At
the same time, the living environment, especially the electromagnetic
environment, has also greatly changed due to science and technology
advances. The effect of artificial electromagnetic fields (EMFs) emitted
from power lines, mobile phones, wireless equipment, and other devices
on ageing and ageing-related diseases are receiving increasing
attention. However, the information on the relationship between EMFs and
ageing and ageing related susceptibility to EMFs is fragmentary, a
review is needed. Only few studies directly investigate the effect of
EMFs on ageing, and we reviewed the impact of EMFs on lifespan and
cellular senescence to pry whether EMFs have an effect on ageing, and
reviewed the age-dependent bioeffects and health impacts of EMFs to see
whether ageing would affect biological susceptibility to EMFs. The
results indicated that EMFs may have an effect on longevity and cellular
senescence, but the results were inconsistent which may depend on EMF
types (frequency, intensity, wave shape, etc.), species, and cell lines.
Ageing has an impact on the biological or health effects of EMFs;
however, the results differ depending on the EMF type and the endpoint
or health outcome. Age-dependent changes in free radical metabolism, ion
homeostasis, gene expression, enzyme activity, and tissue biophysical
properties may be the reason; however, the underlying mechanisms are not
fully elucidated.
Highlights
- Electromagnetic fields (EMF) exposure has an effect on lifespan, but the effect may vary with type of EMF and animal model.
- Extremely-low-frequency EMFs exposure can affect cellular senescence in a wave shape- and/or magnetic density-dependent manner.
- Radio-frequency EMFs promotes cellular senescence in a frequency- and intensity-dependent manner.
- The influence of EMFs on cellular, animal, and human health exhibits a degree of age-dependency.
Conclusion
With the intensification of ageing and the variety of EMFs in the environment continues to increase, the effects of EMFs on ageing and ageing-dependent effects of EMFs will get constant attention. Although current research is insufficient to answer this question, some important information can be gleaned. The ageing state of the cell or body plays a role in determining the biological or health effects of EMF exposure, but the exact effect depends on the specific conditions, and further investigation of the underlying mechanism is needed.
6.1. The effect of EMFs on ageing
Ageing is a complex and expanding concept (López-Otín et al., 2023); therefore, understanding the effects of EMFs on ageing is not to be done in a short time, but we can gain insights into this mystery from the study of lifespan and cellular senescence. SMFs have an effect on delaying cellular senescence (Fig. 3) and extending the lifespan of C. elegans and mice (Fig. 2); however, SMFs at high flux intensity had negative effects on C. elegans (Fig. 2). RMFs have both beneficial effects on anti-cellular senescence and prolong the lifespan of C. elegans (Fig. 2, Fig. 3). The impact of ELF-EMFs on lifespan and cellular senescence had been found to be inconsistent, potentially dependent on wave shape and/or magnetic flux density (Fig. 2, Fig. 3). Exposure to RF-EMFs in the wireless communication bands (1800 MHz–2480 MHz) appears to have no significant impact on lifespan (Fig. 2). However, these RF-EMFs may influence cellular senescence in a frequency- and intensity-dependent manner (Fig. 3).
6.2. Ageing-dependent effect of EMFs
With the global ageing of the population, it is very meaningful to understand the age-dependent health effects of EMFs. Although the current research is still in the preliminary stage, the biological effects of SMFs, ELF-EMFs, and RF-EMFs have been reported to be age dependent (Fig. 4). SMFs have an age-dependent effect on cell apoptosis, calcium signalling and tissue hydration. ELF-EMFs have an age-dependent effect on human-derived primary cells and brain oxidative stress in animals, and epidemiological studies have shown that the relationship between ELF-EMFs and the risk of neurodegenerative disease is greater in older individuals and that the risk of carcinogenesis is greater in young individuals. RF-EMFs have an age-dependent effect on immune cells, tissue development, and brain activity but do not interfere with sleep. Importantly, RF-EMFs are more strongly related to the risk of carcinogenesis in younger age groups.
6.3. Possible mechanisms for the age-dependent effect of EMFs
Cellular senescence is the basis of ageing, so the age-dependent effect may be fundamentally due to cellular senescence (van Deursen, 2014). A deeper understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying the interactions between EMFs and cells may lead to new findings. Free radical metabolism and calcium signalling have mostly been studied for their ability to mediate the bioeffects of EMFs; thus, age-related functional changes in these two aspects might be the cause of age-dependent effects (Falone et al., 2008; Selakovic et al., 2013). Existing studies have shown that other possible mechanisms, such as age-dependent Na+/K+ pump dysfunction (Deghoyan et al., 2014) and decreased expression levels of high-affinity ouabain receptors (Narinyan et al., 2013), play important roles in the age-dependent effect of SMFs on tissue hydration. The effect of EMFs is also dependent on the biophysical properties of tissues or cells, and ageing-related differences in the biophysical properties that result in different responses to EMFs may also be the cause of age-dependent effects.
--
Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation with a focus on
hematology parameters: a brief review and future research needs
N.
Žura, I. Žura Žaja*, P. Perić, K. Malarić, S. Milinković Tur, N.
Poljičak Milas, V. Rimac, J. Pejaković Hlede, S. Kunštek, M. Pećin, M.
Vili. Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation with a focus
on
haematology parameters: a brief review and future research needs.
Veterinarska Stanica, 56(3):375-387. 2025. doi: 10.46419/vs.56.3.6.
Abstract
The
use of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) has steadily
increased since the 1950s. RF-EMR is used in medicine, industry,
household appliances, security and navigation, and especially in
wireless tele- communications and animal husbandry. The widespread use
of RF-EMR, especially with the introduction of 5G networks, raises
concerns about potential adverse effects on human and animal health. The
effects and mechanisms of RF-EMR impacts of 5G network frequencies on
human and animal health are still unknown or poorly understood. Current
research findings include the biological effects of RF-EMR on
genotoxicity, cell proliferation, gene expression, cell signalling, cell
membrane function, and the function of immune, hematopoietic, and
reproductive systems. Exposure of humans and laboratory animals to
RF-EMR emitted from cell phones and many other electronic devices of 4G
and older technologies has been shown to have detrimental effects on
blood cells and to cause changes in the complete blood count. This
depends on the type of organisms exposed, sources, frequency, electric
field level and duration of exposure. There is sparse data in the
available literature on the effects of RF-EMR on haematology indicators
and erythrocyte morphometry in domestic animals. Therefore, the aim of
this scientific review is to highlight the effects of RF-EMR on
haematology indicators, erythrocyte morphometry, and platelet activation
in humans and animals, taking into account the findings on the effects
of 5G electromagnetic radiation on these indicators. Considering the
ubiquitous electromagnetic pollution, it is important to gain knowledge
about the effects of RF-EMR on human and animal health. In addition, it
is necessary to determine the effects following in vitro exposure of
blood to RF-EMR, especially due to the storage and use of blood and
blood products in transfusion medicine.
--
Waveforms of 4G and 5G Radiofrequency Signals: Are Differences Relevant to Biology or Health?
My note: Studies of 4G and 5G exposure have found adverse effects as well as exposure to millimeter waves.
Foster KR, Maxson D, Zollman PM. Waveforms of 4G and 5G Radiofrequency Signals: Are Differences Relevant to Biology or Health?. Health Physics. November 20, 2024. doi: 10.1097/HP.0000000000001895.
Abstract
This Note briefly reviews, at a level that is intended to be accessible
to non-specialists, the similarities and differences between waveforms
of 4G Long-Term Evolution (4G LTE) and 5G New Radio (5G NR) transmitted
by cellular base stations, as a resource for health physicists and
others who are engaged in public communication about cellular telephone
technologies. Despite the difference in levels of controversy presently
existing between 4G LTE (introduced in 2008) and 5G NR (introduced in
2019), the differences in waveform as represented by the baseband
waveform are minimal, although 5G NR offers system designers a much
wider choice of parameters. Transmitted radiofrequency signals in both
technologies appear noise-like, in a frequency range that is narrowly
contained in the assigned channel. It is concluded that the modulation
differences between 4G LTE and 5G NR are unlikely to have any biological
relevance, but the greater range of accessible frequencies in 5G NR
suggests the need for further health research, particularly in the 5G
FR2 millimeter-wave band.
Conclusion
In closing, it is noted that the topic of 5G NR and
health extends beyond the technical considerations concerning
modulation, waveform, and frequency, to include population exposure
assessment, risk perception and risk communication, and other topics.
One factor contributing to public concerns about 5G NR cell sites is the
use of small wireless facilities (“small cells”) along city streets,
sometimes close to residences (network operators have deployed 4G LTE
and 5G NR small cells in some localities). To address this broader range
of issues, in 2022, the European Union funded a large set of studies
called CLUE-H that combines efforts of “more than 70 European research
organizations in four research consortia” (https://emf-health-cluster.eu) to study the risks and perceived risks of 5G technology.
As communications technology continues to
develop, the authors hope that high-quality targeted research will
resolve the remaining gaps in our knowledge.
--
Auto-induced uplink 4G and 5G RF-EMF exposure assessment using a network
monitoring application in different microenvironments across seven
European countries
Stroobandt B, Van Bladel H, Veludo AF, Deprez K, Aerts S, Verloock L, Thuróczy G, Politanski P, Polanska K, Tognola G, Parazzini M, Wiart J, Guxens M, Röösli M, Joseph W. Auto-induced uplink 4G and 5G RF-EMF exposure assessment using a network monitoring application in different microenvironments across seven European countries. Environmental Research, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2025.121029.
Highlights
Assessment of uplink 4G and 5G microenvironmental RF-EMF exposure in Europe
Novel methodology using network monitoring application QualiPoc for 4G and 5G
Transmit powers were higher in villages than in big cities, with 5G lower than 4G
Base station density was suggested as key predictor of auto-induced uplink exposure
Transmit powers are related to uplink duty cycles and frequency band usage
Abstract
The auto-induced uplink (a-UL) radio-frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF), often the dominant part of the total RF-EMF exposure, has not been included in previous microenvironmental studies. As 5G exposure depends more on mobile phone usage, monitoring typical transmit power levels is crucial towards more accurate personal exposure assessment. This study describes spatial differences in average mobile phone transmit power and investigates the influence of uplink duty cycles and frequency band usage. A novel methodology using the network monitoring application QualiPoc in fourth-generation (4G) and non-standalone fifth-generation (5G) networks was presented. For the first time, the assessment of 4G and 5G a-UL RF-EMF exposure was conducted simultaneously in a large-scale microenvironmental study in Europe. Measurements were performed along predefined routes in 282 different microenvironments (e.g., parks, residential areas) across seven European countries, during a maximum uplink usage scenario. The Netherlands had the highest average transmit powers per microenvironment (median 20.6 dBm). Transmit powers in villages were 0.6 to 2.1 dB higher than in big cities. The study suggested that base station density is a key predictor of a-UL exposure. Comparing technologies and frequency bands, average transmit powers for 5G were about 3.3 dB lower than for 4G and lowest for frequency bands with a time division duplexing (TDD) scheme due to the low uplink duty cycle (below 20%). This study provides crucial measurement data for epidemiologists and governments to enhance the understanding of the a-UL component of personal RF-EMF exposure.
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Electromagnetic Field-Aware Radio Resource Management
for 5G and Beyond: A Survey (Review)
Salem MA, Lim HS,
Diong KS, Alaghbari KA,
Zarakovitis CC,
Chien SF.
Electromagnetic Field-Aware Radio Resource Management
for 5G and Beyond: A Survey. Computers. 2025; 14(2):51. doi: 10.3390/computers14020051.
Abstract
The expansion of 5G infrastructure and the deployment of large antenna
arrays are set to substantially influence electromagnetic field (EMF)
exposure levels within mobile networks. As a result, the accurate
measurement of EMF exposure and the integration of EMF exposure
constraints into radio resource management are expected to become
increasingly important in future mobile communication systems. This
paper provides a comprehensive review of EMF exposure evaluation
frameworks for 5G networks, considering the impacts of high-energy
beams, the millimeter wave spectrum, network densification and
reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs), while also examining
EMF-aware radio resource management strategies for 5G networks and
beyond, with RIS technology as an assistive factor. Furthermore,
challenges and open research topics in the EMF evaluation framework and
EMF-aware resource management for 5G mobile networks and beyond are
highlighted. Despite the growing importance of RIS technology in
enhancing mobile networks, a research gap remains in addressing specific
EMF exposure considerations associated with RIS deployments.
Additionally, the impact of EMF-aware radio resource allocation
approaches on RIS-assisted 5G networks is still not fully understood.
--
Measurement of Ambient Millimeter Wave Exposure
Levels around Small Base Stations
My note: Averaging exposure over time, 30 minutes in this study, ensures
very low power densities for 5G millimeter waves (MMW) especially when
few (or no) 5G cell phones are downloading files using the MMW band. Assessing
MMW exposure from a 5G base station is both a costly and tricky
endeavor especially if one is concerned about peak exposures: "...
when a UE was used to attract the beam toward the
measurement location, the maximum instantaneous exposure measured was
-60 dBm (0.8% public MPE)." This was 381 times the
30-min average maximum exposure at that location.
Bushberg JT, Butcher MJ. Measurement of Ambient Millimeter Wave Exposure
Levels around Small Base Stations. Health Phys. 2025 Jan 13. doi:
10.1097/HP.0000000000001935.
Abstract
This study investigated the implementation and impact of
fifth-generation (5G) wireless millimeter wave (mmW) technology. 5G
offers significant advancements over previous generations and supports
additional frequency bands, including mmW, to enhance mobile broadband
with ultra-reliable, low-latency communications, supporting a high
volume of diverse communications. This technology is expected to enable
billions of new connections in the Internet of Things (IoT), fostering
innovations in various sectors including healthcare, manufacturing, and
education. This research contributes to the understanding and safe
implementation of this transformative technology. Global adoption of 5G
is rapidly increasing, with over 1.5 billion subscriptions as of 2024,
projected to reach 58% of all wireless subscriptions by 2029. Despite
its benefits, 5G mmW installations have raised concerns regarding
exposure to electromagnetic fields. This study was conducted using a
dual-polarized horn antenna and relatively inexpensive spectrum
analyzers to measure typical ambient mmW radiofrequency field power
densities near operational radio base stations (RBS) in urban and
suburban environments. The measurements were taken at various times of
the day and in different weather conditions to ensure a comprehensive
understanding of the ambient mmW exposure. The study's results provide
reassuring evidence that the ambient mmW exposure from RBSs is
significantly lower than the safety limits set by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) and other international standards. The
exposure levels ranged from 0.0003% to 0.0082% of the public maximum
permissible exposure (MPE), with the highest levels being more than
25,000 times lower than the allowed continuous public exposure. This
study concludes that typical mmW exposure from 5G RBSs is minimal and
substantially below established safety limits.
Excerpts
Table 1 -
RF hardware.
Device |
Description |
Manufacturer/Part Number |
Spectrum Analyzer #1 |
Spectrum Analyzer 24-43 GHz v.2 |
SAF/J0GSAP541B |
Spectrum Analyzer #2 |
Spectrum Compact 24-40 GHz v.2 |
SAF/J0GSAP741B |
Antenna |
18.0-40.0GHz Dual Polarization Horn Antenna |
A-Info/LB-SJ-180400-KF |
RF Cable Assembly (x2) |
Sucoflex 102 500 mm Cable with 2.92 mm Connectors |
HUBER+SUHNER/SF102/11SK/11SK/500 mm |
Right Angle Adapter (x2) |
2.92 mm Plug to 2.92 mm Jack Right Angle Adapter |
Dynawave/1101-9495-6200 |
Thirty-minute (30 min) measurements were made at three distance
intervals (3-15, 15-30, and 35+ m) from the base of the RBS support
structure as measured with a laser rangefinder (Fig. 3).
These distance intervals were selected to highlight the fact that
exposure levels can vary with distance and angle relative to the BTS.
Locations were selected for alignment with the RBS antenna panels, line
of sight to the antenna, and critically in a location that allowed for
30-min uninterrupted measurements. All the criteria could not be met for
all locations. As seen in Fig. 4,
the middle and far locations were selected off-boresight to avoid
vehicle traffic and achieve line-of-sight. Following the 30-min
measurement at each location, four additional 2-min measurements were
made with the horn oriented at 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° relative to the
direction of the 30-min measurement to assess the presence of
reflections and mmW signals from other RBSs in the area. An example is
shown in Fig. 5. The first 2 min are oriented at the RBS, and the remaining time is at the other azimuths before returning to the RBS.
At most of the measured RBSs, a 1-min sample
acquisition was obtained with a mobile phone (UE) behind the horn
antenna assembly. High-definition/large file-size video downloads were
performed to attract the beam toward the measurement location. The
increase in signal strength over the RBS signal bandwidth was used to
confirm that the measurement equipment and RBS were operating as
expected and to estimate the maximum exposure corresponding to the RBS
operating close to full capacity. It was noted that some RBS operated at
800, 400, and 300 MHz, corresponding to eight, four, and three 100-MHz
channels.
The spectrum analyzers display and record
received signal power in units of decibels relative to a milliwatt
(dBm). The analyzers required a little over 10 s to scan the entire 1
GHz spectrum, using overlapping 100 kHz bins spaced every 30 kHz. SAF
settings are listed in Table 2.
Before measurements, the spectrum analyzers, the horn antenna, and the
feedlines were checked with an RF source at mmW frequencies and found to
agree with the expected levels. Each frequency bin was averaged
throughout the measurement, and the bin with the highest received
averaged power was selected to represent the highest time-average
exposure at the base station. Extrapolating from the highest received
averaged power bin provides a very conservative assessment of power over
the entire spectrum based on the measurements. The highest received
averaged power bin was converted to power received over the operating
bandwidth, considering the ratio of the bin bandwidth to the observed
bandwidth of the signal and the loss of the transmission lines.
The power density for both polarizations was
summed to determine the time-averaged total exposure and compared with
the exposure limit. This result is presented for three distances for
each RBS. RBSs in four geographic areas—Los Angeles, CA; Arlington, VA;
Washington, DC; and Providence, RI—were selected. All have deployed
different manufacturers’ equipment by different operators, including
T-Mobile and AT&T. Locations included urban commercial and
residential areas.
Table 3
shows data of 30-min measurement results at different distance
intervals, indicating the maximum average bin over that 30-min expressed
as a percent of the General Public exposure limit. The ambient mmW
measurements ranged from −77 dBm down to −94 dBm, which, when
polarizations are combined, correspond to total exposure levels of
0.0082% to 0.0003% of the public maximum permissible exposure (MPE). The
noise floor adjacent to the measured signal was −98 dBm (Fig. 6).
By comparison, when a UE was used to attract the beam toward the
measurement location, the maximum instantaneous exposure measured was
-60 dBm (0.8% public MPE) (Fig. 7).
At the same location, the 30-min average maximum 100 kHz bin is −83 dBm
(0.0021% GP). The figures show only one polarization at RBS CYLA4-7 and
include the 100 MHz channel average.
Conclusions
One of the distinguishing
characteristics of 5G mmW base stations is dynamic beamforming using a
multi-element antenna. When the scanning beams detect a UE in its
service environment, the RBS creates a narrow beam directed toward UEs
requesting service. Even when an obstacle in its direct path blocks the
beam, the system will use multiple directed beams for spatial
multiplexing. Spectral analysis of mmW signals typically requires
expensive portable spectrum analyzer equipment, costing upwards of
$70,000. Substantially less expensive equipment (approximately $20,000)
can be used. This report demonstrates that a cross-polarized horn and
two spectrum analyzers can make power density measurements of orthogonal
polarization and capture the total mmW exposure from an RBS.
RF surveys were conducted in the United States in
various urban environments, using different frequency bands, operators,
and equipment manufacturers. Measurements at several distances from
operational radio base stations (RBS) indicate that the typical exposure
from an mmW RBS at ground level was an exceedingly small fraction of
the FCC public safety limit. The overall measurements of ambient mmW
exposure ranged from 0.0003% to 0.0044% of the FCC public MPE. Even the
highest exposure level was more than 25,000 times lower than allowed for
continuous public exposure.
This work is made possible through the funding
provided by the Mobile & Wireless Forum under the project grant
number TBD. The authors alone are responsible for the content of this
paper.
Explainable Machine Learning-Based Electric Field
Strength Mapping for Urban Environmental Monitoring
Kiouvrekis Y,
Psomadakis I, Vavouranakis K,
Zikas S,
Katis I, Tsilikas I,
Panagiotakopoulos T,
Filippopoulos I.
Explainable Machine Learning-Based Electric Field
Strength Mapping for Urban Environmental Monitoring: A Case Study in
Paris Integrating Geographical Features and Explainable AI. Electronics. 2025; 14(2):254.
https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14020254
Abstract
The objective of this study is to determine the optimal machine learning model for constructing electric field strength maps across urban areas, advancing the field of environmental monitoring. These models are unique because they use a detailed dataset that goes beyond electromagnetic readings, incorporating information like population density, urbanization levels, and building characteristics. This novel approach, combined with explainable AI, helps identify the key factors affecting electromagnetic exposure. The models enable the creation of highly detailed and dynamic maps of electromagnetic pollution. These maps are not just static snapshots, they can track changes over time, evaluate the success of mitigation efforts, and provide deeper insights into how electromagnetic fields are distributed in urban areas. To construct a detailed electric field strength map, we conducted an extensive analysis using 410 machine learning models across the urban area of Paris, incorporating three fundamental approaches: k-nearest neighbors, neural networks, and decision trees. This comprehensive exploration allowed us to evaluate and optimize various model configurations, ensuring robust and accurate predictions of electric field strength across diverse urban environments. The kNN model exhibited the most consistent performance, with an RMSE of 1.63 and an SD of 0.20. The analysis indicates that kNN outperforms simple neural networks and decision trees in terms of both RMSE and performance stability. From the SHAP analysis, we conclude that the feature representing the total volume of buildings in the area around each antenna (V) is the most significant in predicting electromagnetic field strength in the kNN regression model, consistently showing a high impact across predictions. The population density feature (POP) also demonstrates considerable influence.
Effects of
5G mobile phone network electromagnetic field exposure on testicular
endoplasmic reticulum stress and the protective role of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)
Yilmaz H, Tümkaya L, Mercantepe T, Yılmaz A, Gül F, Suzan ZT. Effects of
5G mobile phone network electromagnetic field exposure on testicular
endoplasmic reticulum stress and the protective role of coenzyme Q10.
Arch Med Res. 2025 Jan 6;56(4):103157. doi:
10.1016/j.arcmed.2024.103157.
Abstract
Aim: Nowadays, the electromagnetic field (EMF) has become an issue of electromagnetic pollution. This study aimed to determine the effect of 5 G Fr1 frequency band EMF waves on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in testicular tissue and to demonstrate the efficacy of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) in suppressing the potential situation.
Materials and methods: Three groups of eight male Sprague-Dawley rats were established. In group I (control) received only saline solution by oral gavage. In group II (EMF), saline solution was administered by oral gavage and the rats were exposed to 5.9 GHz EMF for 2 h/d (09:00-11:00). In group III (EMF+ CoQ10), the EMF exposure was created in the same way as in group II and CoQ10 was given daily at 10 mg/kg (CoQ10), 2 mg/kg dissolved in corn oil and administered by oral gavage for the experimental period (30 days).
Results: Histopathological damage, including edematous regions, vascular congestion, and neutrophil inflammation accompanied by loss of spermatogenic cells, particularly spermatozoa, and spermatids, increased thiobarbituric acid (TBARS) and decreased total thiol (TT) levels were observed in the seminiferous tubules in the EMF group. Furthermore, germinal epithelial cells showing intense GRP-78 immunopositivity and spermatogenic cells indicating C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) immunopositivity were increased in the seminiferous tubules. On the other hand, in the EMF+CoQ10 group, both histopathological and biochemical findings were observed in the opposite direction.
Conclusion: Due to its antioxidant properties and its ability to suppress oxidative stress and apoptosis, CoQ10 may be a promising candidate against 5 G EMF-induced testicular ER damage.
--
Short-term exposure of 2.4 GHz electromagnetic radiation on
cellular ROS generation and apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cell line and impact on
developing chick embryo brain tissue
Deena K, Maadurshni GB, Manivannan J,
Sivasamy R. Short-term exposure of 2.4 GHz electromagnetic radiation on
cellular ROS generation and apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cell line and impact on
developing chick embryo brain tissue. Mol Biol Rep. 2025 Jan
21;52(1):144. doi: 10.1007/s11033-025-10217-8.
Abstract
Background: Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) from wireless technology and mobile phones, operates at various frequencies. The present study analyses the major impact of short-term exposure to 2.4 GHz frequency EMR, using the two model systems chick embryos and SH-SY5Y cell lines. We hypothesized that exposure to this frequency would induce oxidative stress and apoptosis in neurons.
Methods and results: Chick embryos were exposed continuously to 2.4 GHz EMR for 4 h each day over a 5-day period, and comparisons were made with a control group. At the end of the exposure, brain tissues were dissected for histopathological analysis, antioxidant assays, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection. Additionally, SH-SY5Y cells were exposed to 2.4 GHz EMR to assess cell viability, DNA damage, and apoptosis. Our results showed that exposure to 2.4 GHz EMR induces oxidative stress in both chick embryos and the SH-SY5Y cells, though no significant tissue-level impact was observed. In SH-SY5Y cells, ROS production increased after 4 h of exposure, accompanied by moderate DNA damage and early markers of apoptosis, such as upregulation of the Bax gene. Furthermore, we observed that antioxidants, such as NAC and Mito-TEMPO, helped mitigate the cytotoxic effects of EMR in both the study models.
Conclusion: In conclusion, short-term exposure (4 h) to 2.4 GHz EMR induced moderate cellular and molecular changes, primarily oxidative stress. The oxidative stress was reduced by antioxidants, which suggests potential benefits in preventing EMR-induced cytotoxicity. Extended exposure to EMR beyond 4 h may pose adverse health risks to humans, endorsing further investigation.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates the intricacy of the influential impacts of
short-term exposure to 2.4 GHz electromagnetic radiation (EMR) at the
cellular and tissue levels, thus shedding light on its potential
biological implications. Even though there were no significant
structural changes detected in histopathological studies of chick embryo
brain tissues, results of scanning electron microscopy revealed
micro-impacts after short-term exposure of 2.4 GHz, which induced
moderate surface modifications. Similarly, antioxidant enzyme activities
displayed differential responses where the levels of SOD increased, and
on the other hand, CAT activity remained the same. These observations
thus emphasise the tight regulation of oxidative stress responses to EMR
exposure. In neuronal cell, SH-SY5Y, a marked increase in ROS
generation was accompanied by DNA damage and upregulation of apoptotic
markers, especially the Bax gene. These findings show that EMR causes
oxidative stress and triggers the activation of apoptosis-related
pathways stating that mitochondria have a role in these events.
Interestingly, the antioxidant protection by NAC and Mito-TEMPO shows a
potential area of intervention for the abrogation of oxidative stress
due to EMR.
--
Compound exposure
of 2.8 GHz and 9.3 GHz microwave causes learning and memory impairment
in rats
Sun L, Wang X, Ren K, Yao C, Wang H, Xu X,
Wang H, Dong J, Zhang J, Yao B, Wei X, Peng R, Zhao L. Compound exposure
of 2.8 GHz and 9.3 GHz microwave causes learning and memory impairment
in rats. Heliyon. 2025 Jan 3;11(1):e41626. doi:
10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e41626.
Abstract
The anxieties and concerns about health hazards caused by microwave has
been growing recently. Previous studies have reported microwave induced
structural and functional injuries to brain. However, the biological
effects caused by compound microwave were largely unexplored. In this
study, we investigated the biological effects on rat's hippocampus after
sequentially exposure to 2.8 GHz and 9.3 GHz at average power density
of 10 mW/cm2. Morris water maze (MWM) navigation tests showed
that microwave exposure significantly extended the average escape
latency (AEL) at 1d and 3d after exposure, suggesting reduced learning
and memory ability. Importantly, compound microwave produced strongest
responses at 3 d after exposure. Moreover, microwave also could induce
abnormal electroencephalogram (EEG), such as increasing the power of θ
wave and δ wave, suggesting brain damage or dysfunction.
Histopathological analysis suggested that microwave resulted in obvious
structural injuries in hippocampus at 7 d after exposure, and most
serious injuries were observed in compound microwave exposed rats.
Moreover, disorder of mitochondria and reduced Nissl bodies in
hippocampus might contribute to the decrease of cognitive function.
However, both the cognitive function and hippocampal structure restored
to normal at 28 d after exposure, which might be attributed to
self-recovery mechanisms. Gene ontology (GO) and Protein-protein
interaction (PPI) analyses of differential expressed genes (DEGs) in
peripheral blood suggested that Htt and Bdnf might be potential
indicators to predict microwave. In conclusion, compound microwave of
2.8 GHz and 9.3 GHz could elicit reversible structural injuries to
hippocampus, which could decrease the cognitive function of rats.
Conclusion
The composite microwave of 2.8 GHz and 9.3 GHz can cause damage to rat
hippocampal tissue, inhibit brain activity, and reduce the metabolism of
hippocampal neurons through inducing mitochondrial disorder and
decreasing Nissl bodies, and ultimately impaired the learning and memory
abilities of rats. Notably, compound microwave can reduce the learning
and memory ability of rats more than single frequency microwave. Through
a combination of GO and PPI analyses, we have also identified Htt,
Htra, Psen1, Tp73, and Bdnf as potential predictive indicators of
microwave-induced neuronal damage in the nervous system.
--
Measurement of non-ionizing
radiation (NIR) from Wi-Fi access points and microwave ovens in
residential environments
Silva, J. da L. A., Rodrigues, M. E. C.,
Pinheiro, F. S. R., Silva, G. S. da, Mendonça, H. B., Silva, R. Q. de F.
H., … Sousa, V. A. de, Jr. (2025). Measurement of non-ionizing
radiation (NIR) from Wi-Fi access points and microwave ovens in
residential environments. Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, 1–22. doi: 10.1080/09205071.2024.2449120.
Abstract
It
is essential to monitor the radiation levels to which the general
population may be exposed and compare them to limits established by
national and international standards. This is especially true in
residential environments, where there is a consolidated use of microwave
ovens and Wi-Fi access points, in addition to the short distances
devices can be from the user, as well as prolonged periods of user
exposure. The objective of this work is to measure the exposure levels
for daily Wi-Fi and microwave oven use scenarios in residential
environments, to compare measured levels with the standards and to
verify possible relation with the characteristics of the equipment under
analysis. We use the Narda NBM-520 to support our measurements, the
same equipment the National Telecommunication Agency (ANATEL) uses for
Brazil's Non-ionizing Radiation (NIR) inspection. This work presents
measurements in 40 Wi-Fi access points in which the highest exposure
level was 4.66V/m
(7.64 % of the limit), verified for the 2.4 GHz network (the so-called
Situation 1). This work also presents measurements in 50 microwave
ovens. It was observed that 72% of them had the highest level of
exposure for the position in front of the door.
Conclusion
This work evaluates the level of exposure to NIR in homes, mainly from
technologies commonly found in residences: Wi-Fi and microwave ovens.
For this, measurements were performed on 40 Wi-Fi access points and 50
microwave ovens following measurement methodologies from suitable
governmental agencies.
For Wi-Fi case study, the influence of
electric field levels was investigated in four measurement situations,
by equipment brand, and by time of use. The highest level of exposure
was verified for the 2.4 GHz loaded network (Situation 1), at a value of
4.66V/m
(7.64% of limit). As for the influence of the brand, the variation of
the equipment model between the samples impacts the dispersion of the
data; so Brand 4, which has the highest dispersion, has four different
models and only two samples of identical models, while Brands 1 and 2
had the lowest dispersion and contain most of the samples belonging to
the same model. Thus, no clear relation was observed regarding the year
of acquisition of Wi-FI APs and the NIR leakage.
The microwave
oven case study targets the relation between power density level and
position, brand, time of use, and conservation. We observe that 72% of
the samples had the highest level of exposure in front of the door,
followed by 18% on the left side (considering the observer facing the
microwave oven as a reference). We speculate that the ventilation outlet
located at the left side is responsible for some NIR leakage, since 2
of 3 samples that presented the worst point at the top of the oven, the
ventilation outlet is located in this local
Our
results do not show the influence of the brand on the power density
levels. However, regarding the time of use, there is a tendency for
microwave ovens to reach higher levels of power density with age, since
microwave ovens with year of acquisition <2016 (oldest) present the
highest levels. Likewise, the state of conservation of the equipment
restrained the levels of power density so that all microwave ovens that
reached an average power density above 0.6W/m2 showed signs of use. In addition, only two of the nine ovens that obtained peak power above 1W/m2 did not show signs of use.
--
Evaluation of Population Exposure to Radiofrequency Fields in
Microenvironments in the Cities of Lima, Cusco and Pucallpa in Perú,
Using a Personal Exposimeter
Cruz V, Quispe M. Evaluation of Population Exposure to Radiofrequency Fields in Microenvironments in the Cities of Lima, Cusco and Pucallpa in Perú, Using a Personal Exposimeter. 2024 IEEE XXXI International Conference on Electronics, Electrical Engineering and Computing (INTERCON), Lima, Peru, 2024, pp. 1-8, doi: 10.1109/INTERCON63140.2024.10833492.
Abstract
The objective of this study was to make an evaluation of radiofrequency fields in microenvironments of Cuzco, Lima and Pucallpa using personal exposimeters. To carried it out a literature review was first made, then the urban environ-ments were defined, and 95 microenvironments were selected in the three cities. Subsequently, the exposimeter including the proprietary software for data processing was tested. In total, 1900 measurements of the main telecommunications services were carried out. The electric field was measured for each environment, with a maximum of 2.531 V/m, a minimum of 0.063 V/m and an average of 0.521 V/m for all measurements combined. Based on the ICNIRP 1998 limits, exposure quotients were also obtained for all the measurements combined and for the measurements in each city considering outdoor and indoor measurements, different types of environments and by main frequency bands. For all measurements combined, the maximum exposure quotient was 0.747% and the average was 0.033%. All measurements made were well below international limits, the largest contributors to total exposure were mobile phone base stations, the second largest were broadcasting services, and mobile phone handsets exposure was well below that of mobile phone base stations.
--
Wireless radiation and health: making the case for proteomics research of individual sensitivity
Leszczynski
D. Wireless radiation and health: making the case for proteomics
research of individual sensitivity. Front. Public Health. Volume 12 doi:
10.3389/fpubh.2024.1543818.
No abstract
Excerpts
"According to the WHO definition of health, just a belief in having EHS
and experiencing non-specific symptoms, physiological and/or
psychological, is experiencing the health effects of wireless
technology. Hence, it is correct to claim that wireless radiation causes
health effects."
"Puzzlingly, the frequent observation that the
self-declared EHS person can't feel the wireless radiation and can't
recognize when the wireless transmitter emits radiation and when it is
not transmitting, is considered ultimate proof that the form of
individual sensitivity to wireless radiation called EHS is not caused by
wireless radiation exposures. This is questionable as no person,
sensitive or not, could feel the ionizing radiation or other
non-ionizing radiation like ultraviolet in their environment."
"...logically
and per analogiam with other environmental factors, individual
sensitivity to wireless radiation, which includes EHS, exists as
indicated below, and should be studied using biochemical methods."
"Search
for sensitive individuals, most commonly using provocation studies
where experimentally controlled exposures are followed by inquiries
about acutely occurring symptoms and feelings, has failed to detect any
sensitivity to wireless radiation. The reason might be that provocation
exposures combined with psychological inquiries might be not sensitive
enough to detect individual sensitivity to a single agent present in a
mix of other environmental agents..."
"There is a need for human
volunteer studies where the already proposed, and other potentially
useful biomarkers, would be examined in groups of sensitive and
non-sensitive persons, ethically exposed to wireless radiation."
"The
way forward in EHS research is to discover biomarkers of EHS, molecules
that are affected by wireless radiation exposure, by research using
high-throughput screening techniques of proteomics, transcriptomics, and
metabolomics [...]. For the start, proteomics might be the most
promising of these methods."
"The reasons why proteomics is not used
to study the physiological effects of wireless radiation exposures in
humans are difficult to understand and comprehend. Despite the
advantages of research using proteomics methodology, over the last 20
years, only a few proteomics studies have examined proteome changes in
response to wireless radiation exposures."
"In conclusion, it is
logical to conclude that the individual sensitivity to wireless
radiation emitted by wireless communication devices and networks exists
and impacts the health of sensitive persons. Clearly, the to-date
unsuccessfully used methods of provocation studies were either too crude
or too much affected by the perceptions and preexisting opinions of
study volunteers."
--
Amelioration and Immuno-modulation by Ashwagandha
on Wi-fi Induced Oxidative Stress in Regulating Reproduction Via
Estrogen Receptor Alpha in Male Japanese Quail
Gupta V, Srivastava R. Amelioration and Immuno-modulation by Ashwagandha
on Wi-fi Induced Oxidative Stress in Regulating Reproduction Via
Estrogen Receptor Alpha in Male Japanese Quail. Reprod Sci. 2025 Jan 13.
doi: 10.1007/s43032-024-01774-7.
Abstract
As global change threatens avian biodiversity, understanding
species responses to environmental perturbations due to radiation
emitted by enormous increase in the application of wireless
communication is very urgent. The study investigates the effect of MW
radiation on redox balance, stress level, male fertility and the
efficacy of Withania somnifera (WS) root extract (100 mg/kg body weight)
orally administered in 8 weeks old mature male Japanese quail exposed
to 2.4 GHz MW radiation for 2 h/day for 30 days with power density =
0.1264 mw/cm2 and SAR = 0.9978 W/Kg. Wi-fi exposure induces a
decrease in testicular weight, volume, density and gonado-somatic index
(GSI) while Ashwagandha increases them. Oxidative stress parameters
increased and activity of SOD, catalase, GSH was reduced in testes of
exposed quail while Ashwagandha treatment reinstates the redox balance.
Exposure to Wi-fi alters quail reproduction by increase in
corticosterone and decreased testosterone with reduced expression of
estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) in testis. Wi-fi exposure increases IL1β
and reduces IL10 in testis. IL-1β inhibits testicular cell function and
promotes apoptosis by increasing NF-κB and decreasing sperm count in
exposed quails. Ashwagandha increases expression of ERα, sperm count and
immunity in quail testis. Further, decrease in IL1β, NF-κB and increase
in IL-10 after administration of Ashwagandha in Wi-fi exposed quail
prevents inflammatory damages and enhances gonadal function. Thus,
exposure to Wi-fi increases oxidative stress, activates apoptosis,
modulates immunity in testis while Ashwagandha reverses them via
enhanced ERα expression, increase in sperm count thereby enhancing
fertility in male Japanese quail.
--
The Development of
a Reverberation Chamber for the Assessment of Biological Effects of
Electromagnetic Energy Absorption in Mice
Iskra S, McIntosh RL, McKenzie RJ,
Frankland JV, Deng C, Sylvester E, Wood AW, Croft RJ. The Development of
a Reverberation Chamber for the Assessment of Biological Effects of
Electromagnetic Energy Absorption in Mice. Bioelectromagnetics. 2025
Jan;46(1):e22539. doi: 10.1002/bem.22539.
Abstract
In this paper, we present the design, RF-EMF performance,
and a comprehensive uncertainty analysis of the reverberation chamber
(RC) exposure systems that have been developed for the use of
researchers at the University of Wollongong Bioelectromagnetics
Laboratory, Australia, for the purpose of investigating the biological
effects of RF-EMF in rodents. Initial studies, at 1950 MHz, have focused
on investigating thermophysiological effects of RF exposure, and
replication studies related to RF-EMF exposure and progression of
Alzheimer's disease (AD) in mice predisposed to AD. The RC exposure
system was chosen as it allows relatively unconstrained movement of
animals during exposures which can have the beneficial effect of
minimizing stress-related, non-RF-induced biological and behavioral
changes in the animals. The performance of the RCs was evaluated in
terms of the uniformity of the Whole-Body Average-Specific Absorption
Rate (WBA-SAR) in mice for a given RF input power level. The expanded
uncertainty in WBA-SAR estimates was found to be 3.89 dB. Validation of
WBA-SAR estimates based on a selected number of temperature measurements
in phantom mice found that the maximum ratio of the temperature-derived
WBA-SAR to the computed WBA-SAR was 1.1 dB, suggesting that actual
WBA-SAR is likely to be well within the expanded uncertainties.
--
Continuous exposure to 60 Hz extremely low frequency magnetic field
at 10-14 mT promotes various human cell proliferation by activating
extracellular-signal-regulated kinase
Goh J, Suh D, Um DY, Chae SA, Park GS, Song
K. Continuous exposure to 60 Hz extremely low frequency magnetic field
at 10-14 mT promotes various human cell proliferation by activating
extracellular-signal-regulated kinase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2025
Jan 28;751:151414. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2025.151414.
Abstract
We previously showed that 60 Hz extremely low-frequency magnetic fields
(ELF-MF) at 6 mT promote various human cell proliferation. This study
investigated the effects of 60 Hz ELF-MF at 10-16 mT on various
mammalian cells, including human cervical carcinoma, rat neuroblastoma,
liver cancer stem cells, immortalized normal hepatic cells, and normal
fibroblasts. Using a revised ELF-MF-generating device that increases
magnetic flux density stably without thermal effects, we exposed cells
to 10 and 16 mT ELF-MF for 72 h. All cell types exhibited an
approximately 20 % or greater increase in proliferation compared to the
sham exposure group at 14 mT, with no further increase observed at 16
mT. In cells with activated proliferation at 14 mT, we observed
activation of the MEK-ERK pathway and NF-κB, but not Akt, and a slight
increase in S phase population. Intracellular and mitochondrial ROS
levels remained unchanged, and the proliferation-activating effects
persisted when oxidative phosphorylation was interrupted. No changes in
intracellular calcium levels were observed, and the
proliferation-activating effects were maintained in the presence of a
calcium chelator. These findings suggest that ROS and intracellular
calcium do not mediate ELF-MF's proliferation-activating physiological
effect. In conclusion, exposure to 60 Hz ELF-MF at 10-14 mT promotes
cell proliferation by activating ERK1/2 without affecting intracellular
ROS and calcium levels.
--
An amplification
mechanism for weak ELF magnetic fields quantum-bio effects in cancer
cells
Zandieh A, Shariatpanahi SP, Ravassipour AA, Azadipour J, Nezamtaheri
MS, Habibi-Kelishomi Z, Ghanizadeh M, Same-Majandeh A, Majidzadeh-A K,
Taheri A, Ansari AM, Javidi MA, Pirnia MM, Goliaei B. An amplification
mechanism for weak ELF magnetic fields quantum-bio effects in cancer
cells. Sci Rep. 2025 Jan 23;15(1):2964. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-87235-w.
Abstract
Observing quantum mechanical characteristics in biological
processes is a surprising and important discovery. One example, which is
gaining more experimental evidence and practical applications, is the
effect of weak magnetic fields with extremely low frequencies on cells,
especially cancerous ones. In this study, we use a mathematical model of
ROS dynamics in cancer cells to show how ROS oscillatory patterns can
act as a resonator to amplify the small effects of the magnetic fields
on the radical pair dynamics in mitochondrial Complex III. We suggest
such a resonator can act in two modes for distinct states in cancer
cells: (1) cells at the edge of mitochondrial oscillation and (2) cells
with local oscillatory patches. When exposed to magnetic fields, the
first group exhibits high-amplitude oscillations, while the second group
synchronizes to reach a whole-cell oscillation. Both types of
amplification are frequency-dependent in the range of hertz and
sub-hertz. We use UV radiation as a positive control to observe the two
states of cells in DU and HELA cell lines. Application of magnetic
fields shows frequency-dependent results on both the ROS and
mitochondrial potential which agree with the model for both type of
cells. We also observe the oscillatory behavior in the time-lapse
fluorescence microscopy for 0.02 and 0.04 Hz magnetic fields. Finally,
we investigate the dependence of the results on the field strength and
propose a quantum spin-forbidden mechanism for the effect of magnetic
fields on superoxide production in QO site of mitochondrial Complex III.
Excerpts
In a nutshell, our proposed scheme acts in two distinct levels: [I] At
the level of superoxide production in mitochondrial ETC where the
applied magnetic field can alter production rate of superoxide by
closing the energy gap between singlet and triplet state of a radical
pair in Complex III. Here the applied magnetic field effectively acts as a static field. And [II] at the level of mitochondrial network, where
oscillation of the applied magnetic field (and thus oscillation in the
production rate of superoxide) can resonate with the intrinsic frequency
of RIRR in cancer cells. At this level, the minor effect of underlying
RPM is amplified to affect the physiology of the cell in a
frequency-dependent manner....
Conclusion
Our study proposed a quantum biological mechanism for the
effect of varying small magnetic fields on cancer cells. The frequency
dependent effect of magnetic field is here postulated to be the result
of interaction of alternating field with the intrinsically oscillatory
system of coupled mitochondria via a novel radical pair phenomenon.
Here the site of action of the field is suggested to be
the semiquinone/FeS radical pair in Complex III of ETC. A magnetic field
of the order of few hundreds of millitesla is predicted to populate the
triplet state of the radical pair whose electron transfer onto oxygen
molecule is restricted by a spin forbidden reaction in half of the
cases. This leads to a mild decrease in superoxide production in the
presence of such a magnetic field. An oscillatory field can amplify such
an effect via a resonance phenomenon in a network of coupled
mitochondria in many cell lines. This substantial change in ROS balance
can potentially cause physiological effect in the cells, including
apoptosis. Our simulations show the mentioned effect can be manifested
in two resonance modes: Either triggering the oscillation in network or
synchronizing the out of phase oscillatory mitochondria. Our
experimental results confirm the suggested model which can explain the
previous observations for the first time. The hypothesis was validated
by the observation of the synchronization when cells were exposed to
sudden UV irradiation.
Moreover, we observed a frequency-dependent variation of
the ROS concentration and mitochondrial membrane potential under the
effect of oscillatory magnetic field in frequencies and intensities
suggested by our model.
Further in vitro investigation with higher resolution of
microscopy and more extensive profile of magnetic field frequencies and
intensities can shed light on the detailed components of the involved
mechanism.
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Effect of terahertz
radiation on cells and cellular structures (Review)
Rytik AP, Tuchin VV. Effect of terahertz radiation on cells and cellular structures. Front Optoelectron. 2025 Jan 27;18(1):2. doi: 10.1007/s12200-024-00146-y.
Abstract
The paper presents the results of modern research on the effects of electromagnetic terahertz radiation in the frequency range 0.5-100 THz at different levels of power density and exposure time on the viability of normal and cancer cells. As an accompanying tool for monitoring the effect of radiation on biological cells and tissues, spectroscopic research methods in the terahertz frequency range are described, and attention is focused on the possibility of using the spectra of interstitial water as a marker of pathological processes. The problem of the safety of terahertz radiation for the human body from the point of view of its effect on the structures and systems of biological cells is also considered.
Conclusion
The presented data show that THz radiation has a variety of effects on cells, which are manifested in the disruption of the properties of cell membranes, the formation of pores, the activation of ion channels, and changes in their proliferation and viability [110]. Possible mechanisms that determine the reaction of cells to THz radiation may be the following:-
a change in the conformation of membrane proteins,
which triggers an intracellular cascade of regulators of the genetic
and enzymatic systems and the permeability of cell membranes for various
substances;
-
a change in the conformation of membrane proteins that perceive external regulatory signals;
-
change in the conformation of membrane proteins
that are pumps or channels for the transport of various substances into
and out of the cell;
-
redistribution of the electric charge on the cell membrane;
-
excitation of resonant oscillations of macromolecules that make up the cell membrane and the cytoskeleton as a whole.
Thus, fundamentally, THz radiation does not cause
the breaking or restoration of chemical covalent bonds, since the
quantum energy is insufficient for this, 1 THz − 4.1 meV. However, this
radiation, in its frequencies, falls into the region of
vibrational–rotational movements of biological molecules and water and
can excite energy levels of vibrational–rotational transitions of
proteins and water, and thereby change the spatial conformation of
proteins, which can affect various interactions between proteins,
protein and water molecules.
It is generally accepted that there
are several mechanisms that determine the effect of the response of
living cells to THz radiation, in particular [1]:
-
redistribution of electrical charge on the cell membrane, changing the ratio of concentrations of bound and free water;
-
excitation of resonant vibrations of macromolecules that make up the cell membrane and the cytoskeleton as a whole;
-
change in the conformation of membrane proteins.
Water molecules themselves can be considered as a universal marker in the THz frequency range, which is sensitive to various vital processes occurring in living tissues and cells. Compared to what is traditionally described in dielectric spectroscopy, in the THz frequency range water as a marker allows one to obtain new information about biological systems. Moving from the gigahertz (GHz) to the THz range, we are gradually approaching various vibrational–rotational processes that are determined by the interaction of water molecules with surrounding molecular systems [23]. Biomacromolecules, being excited, absorb part or all of the energy of electromagnetic waves, depending on the frequency of the incident radiation [26]. Since the generalized terahertz range (0.1–100 THz) partially overlaps with the vibration spectrum of biomolecules, terahertz waves can greatly enhance vibrations of biomolecule bonds such as twisting, stretching, and bending through resonant excitation [111]. However, early studies of the biological effects induced by optical stimulation focused on the infrared region, which promotes the strong absorption of incoming energy by water and its conversion into heat [112, 113]. While heat alters transmembrane capacitance or ion channel activity and hence induces biological responses, it inevitably also causes a transient increase in local temperature. On the other hand, terahertz wave modulation is seen as a promising approach for interfering with biophysical processes without being damaged by electromagnetic radiation. The study of non-thermal biological effects of infrared radiation has attracted close attention from both opticians and biologists. In addition, THz waves with low photon energy are unlikely to cause ionizing effects, thus will not damage genome integrity as other radiation intervention approaches might [112].
It can be concluded that currently there is no full consensus in the scientific community as to whether THz radiation has a damaging effect on biological objects at various levels of organization [83, 114]. Therefore, an increase in studies using THz radiation to monitor the activity of uncontrolled dividing cells is expected in the near future. The development of new high-resolution THz diagnostic methods in combination with AI technologies will take cancer diagnosis and therapy to a new level. It is obvious that more and more new data will appear soon for THz diagnostics and therapy of tumor oncological processes. In addition, theranostics technologies, where THz radiation from the same source is used first for diagnosis and then at increased energy parameters for therapy within a single protocol, have not yet received proper development, but are undoubtedly promising.
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Metabolomic and gene networks approaches reveal
the role of mitochondrial membrane proteins in response of human
melanoma cells to THz radiation
Butikova EA, Basov NV, Rogachev AD, Gaisler EV, Ivanisenko VA, Demenkov PS, Makarova AA, Ivanisenko TV, Razumov IA, Kolomeyets DA, Cheresiz SV, Solovieva OI, Larionov KP, Sotnikova YS, Patrushev YV, Kolchanov NA, Pokrovsky AG, Vinokurov NA, Kanygin VV, Popik VM, Shevchenko OA. Metabolomic and gene networks approaches reveal the role of mitochondrial membrane proteins in response of human melanoma cells to THz radiation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids. 2025 Jan 20:159595. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2025.159595.
This paper presents a study on the biological effects of terahertz
irradiation with a frequency of 2.3 THz and a power of 0.056 W/cm2
on SK-MEL-28 cells, using targeted metabolomic screening by liquid
chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and gene network
analysis.
Highlights
• THz radiation exposure induced significant changes in the levels of 40 metabolites, especially those related to purine and pyrimidine pathways. Lipids, such as ceramides and phosphatidylcholines, were also affected by this exposure.
• Gene network reconstruction identified mitochondrial membrane proteins, including components of the respiratory chain complex, ATP synthase, and lipid rafts, as key regulators of the enzymes involved in biosynthesis and degradation of the significantly altered metabolites.
• THz radiation induces reversible disruption of lipid raft macromolecular structure, altering mitochondrial molecule transport while maintaining protein integrity.
• Importantly, the metabolic effects observed were specific to THz radiation and were not due to heating, as evidenced by the distinct responses in control cells exposed to infrared radiation.
Abstract
Terahertz (THz) radiation has gained attention due to technological advancements, but its biological effects remain unclear. We investigated the impact of 2.3 THz radiation on SK-MEL-28 cells using metabolomic and gene network analysis. Forty metabolites, primarily related to purine, pyrimidine synthesis and breakdown pathways, were significantly altered post-irradiation. Lipids, such as ceramides and phosphatidylcholines, were also affected. Gene network reconstruction and analysis identified key regulators of the enzymes involved in biosynthesis and degradation of significantly altered metabolites. Mitochondrial membrane components, such as the respiratory chain complex, the proton-transporting ATP synthase complex, and components of lipid rafts, reacted to THz radiation. We propose that THz radiation induces reversible disruption of the lipid raft macromolecular structure, thereby altering mitochondrial molecule transport while maintaining protein integrity, which explains the high cell survival rate. Our findings enhance the understanding of THz biological effects and emphasize the role of membrane components in the cellular response to THz radiation.
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Hidden route of
protein damage through oxygen-confined photooxidation
Kim S, Kim E, Park M, Kim SH, Kim BG, Na S,
Sadongo VW, Wijesinghe WCB, Eom YG, Yoon G, Jeong H, Hwang E, Lee C,
Myung K, Kim CU, Choi JM, Min SK, Kwon TH, Min D. Hidden route of
protein damage through oxygen-confined photooxidation. Nat Commun. 2024
Dec 30;15(1):10873. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-55168-z.
Abstract
Oxidative modifications can disrupt protein folds and functions, and are
strongly associated with human aging and diseases. Conventional
oxidation pathways typically involve the free diffusion of reactive
oxygen species (ROS), which primarily attack the protein surface. Yet,
it remains unclear whether and how internal protein folds capable of
trapping oxygen (O2) contribute to oxidative damage. Here, we report a hidden pathway of protein damage, which we refer to as O2-confined photooxidation. In this process, O2
is captured in protein cavities and subsequently converted into
multiple ROS, primarily mediated by tryptophan residues under blue light
irradiation. The generated ROS then attack the protein interior through
constrained diffusion, causing protein damage. The effects of this
photooxidative reaction appear to be extensive, impacting a wide range
of cellular proteins, as supported by whole-cell proteomic analysis.
This photooxidative mechanism may represent a latent oxidation pathway
in human tissues directly exposed to visible light, such as skin and
eyes.
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Structural Analysis of
Plasma-Induced Oxidation and Electric Field Effect on the Heat Shock
Protein (Hsp60) Structure
Attri P, Okumura T, Koga K, Shiratani M. Structural Analysis of
Plasma-Induced Oxidation and Electric Field Effect on the Heat Shock
Protein (Hsp60) Structure: A Computational Viewpoint. Chem Biodivers.
2025 Jan 5:e202401243. doi: 10.1002/cbdv.202401243.
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increase in the study of the
mechanisms behind plasma oncology. For this, many wet lab experiments
and computational studies were conducted. Computational studies give an
advantage in examining protein structures that are costly to extract in
enough amounts to analyze the biophysical properties following plasma
treatment. Therefore, in this work, we studied the effect of plasma
oxidation and electric field on the human mitochondrial heat shock
protein (mHsp60). Hsp60, alias chaperonin, is one of the most conserved
proteins expressed across all species. Hence, we performed molecular
dynamic simulations to calculate the root-mean-square deviation,
root-mean-square fluctuation, and solvent-accessible surface area of
mHsp60 with and without oxidation. In addition to the oxidation state,
we also applied an electric field (0.003 and 2.0 V/nm) to check the
changes in the mHsp60 protein. Through simulations, we observed that the
electric field strongly affects the structure of mHsp60 protein
compared with the oxidation. The combination of oxidation and electric
field effect increases the destabilization of the mHsp60 structure
compared with their respective control states.
Conclusion
We can conclude that the mHsp60 structure is modified by possible plasma-assisted oxidation, particularly involving Trp, Try, and Met amino acids, resulting in noticeable structural changes. RMSD values reflect that mHsp60 structure flexibility slightly increases in OXID-2, whereas the structure becomes rigid in OXID-1. This suggests that the oxidation of Met amino acids plays a significant role in enhancing mHsp60 flexibility. On the other hand, applying an electric field (EF1 and EF2) to the control mHsp60 increases the RMSD value more than for oxidized mHsp60 (OXID-1 and OXID-2), indicating that the electric field has a more substantial effect on the mHsp60 structure than oxidation alone. Additionally, the RMSD values of OXID-1 and OXID-2 increased after electric field treatment (0.003 V/nm from the x, y, and z axes), demonstrating that the small electric field generated by DBD plasma can significantly influence protein conformational changes in both native and oxidized states. HSPs, including Hsp60, play a vital role in maintaining protein homeostasis, which is crucial for cell integrity, survival, and metabolism. However, when chaperone-assisted protein quality control is compromised due to oxidation or exposure to electric effect, it may trigger the onset and progression of numerous diseases.