I have been circulating abstracts of newly-published scientific papers on radio frequency and other non-ionizing electromagnetic fields (EMF) monthly since 2016. The complete collection contains more than 2500 abstracts with links to these papers. Several hundred EMF scientists around the world receive these updates.
To download Volume 3 which contains abstracts of papers published since 2024
(including the new papers listed below) click on the following link (611 page pdf):
To download Volume 2 which contains abstracts of papers published from 2021 through 2023
click on the following link (867 page pdf):
To download Volume 1 which contains abstracts of papers published from 2016 through 2020
click on the following link (875 page pdf):
The abstracts for recently published papers appear below.
Exposure limits to
radiofrequency EMF do not account for cancer risk or reproductive
toxicity assessed from data in experimental animals
Melnick RL, Moskowitz JM, International Commission on the Biological
Effects of Electromagnetic Fields (ICBE-EMF). Exposure limits to
radiofrequency EMF do not account for cancer risk or reproductive
toxicity assessed from data in experimental animals. Environ Health.
2026 Mar 14. doi: 10.1186/s12940-026-01288-6.
Abstract
Background Recent WHO-commissioned systematic reviews have concluded with “high certainty” that exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) increases cancer risk and reduces male fertility in experimental animals.
Methods We performed benchmark dose (BMD) analyses on experimental cancer data to estimate exposure levels associated with cancer risk of 1 × 10–5 (1 in 100,000). Due to the lack of an established non-linear mode of action for RF-EMF-induced tumor responses, we utilized linear low-dose extrapolation from 1% BMD values. In addition, we applied traditional uncertainty factors to the reported linear potency value of 0.03 per W/kg for male reproductive toxicity to derive health-protective exposure limits.
Results The derived dose per hour (expressed as the specific absorption rate, SAR) at 1 × 10–5 cancer risk ranges from about 0.8 to 5 mW/kg. It should be noted that cancer risk increases with increasing time of exposure to RF-EMF. For protection of male fertility due to exposure to RF-EMF, the estimated SAR exposure limit was 3.3 to 10 mW/kg. These health protective whole-body exposure values are significantly lower than the current whole-body exposure limit value of 0.08 W/kg (80 mW/kg) established by ICNIRP and the FCC for the general public.
Conclusions For the general public, current regulatory limits to RF-EMF are 15- to 900-fold higher than our estimates of exposure levels associated with cancer risk of 1 × 10–5 (depending on the duration of daily exposure), and 8- to 24-fold higher than levels that are protective of male reproductive health. Thus, we strongly recommend an independent re-evaluation of RF-EMF exposure limits, integrating scientific data accumulated over the past 30 years and applying rigorous health-protective methodologies.
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Systemic effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (review). Spleen, excretory system, skin, bone system
Khorseva NI, Grigoriev PE. Systemic effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (review). Spleen, excretory system, skin, bone system. Health Risk Analysis. 2025. doi: 10.21668/health.
Abstract
Currently, isolated publications appear to report the results of experimental and monitoring studies that provide solid evidence of the spleen, excretory system, skin and skeletal system being sensitive to effects produced by radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) in a wide frequency range (from 900 MHz to 2.45 GHz). Since health and normal functioning of these organs and systems are the most important conditions for vital activity of the body, systematization of the available data determines the relevance of this review.
Analysis of the available results obtained by experimental studies has showed that numerous histopathological changes are registered in the spleen (for example, in the white pulp), excretory system (in the kidneys as degeneration of glomeruli and vessels, vacuolization of tubules, fibrosis, etc.; in the bladder as cell apoptosis, etc.), and skeletal system (decreased bone density) upon repeated exposure to RF EMF of various frequency ranges.
A special place belongs to studies with their focus on RF EMF effects in the 5G range on the skin, which is currently a new critical organ of its impact. The studies have reported acceleration of skin aging, pigmentation disorders, mitochondrial stress in fibroblasts and keratinocytes.
Negative changes in the spleen were recorded in studies that applied electrophotonic visualization during short-term exposure to RF EMF on adolescents.
Epidemiological studies indicate that the duration of conversations using a cell phone increases the risk of kidney disease and decreased bone density, detected in active mobile communication users, especially when they carry a gadget in trouser pockets.
The obtained results are relevant and have practical significance for children and adolescents who are currently active users of cellular communications.
Summarizing the available data on the negative impact of RF EMF not only on the nervous system, but also on other systems of the body, we can state its systemic effects.
In this regard, as noted in a number of foreign studies, there is a need to revise the previously adopted FCC and ICNIRP limits for the impact of RF EMF on the human body. The expert society should concentrate its future efforts on developing updated safe RF EMF limits and probable future revision of sanitary rules and norms in accordance with new identified health risks primarily for children and adolescents as a population group, which is the most susceptible to any environmental exposure.
We believe that guidelines should be developed for implementing relevant culture for safe use of up-to-date gadgets for children and adolescents including predominant use of wire-based hands-free kits (not Bluetooth), speakerphones, as well as messengers used for subsequent exchange of text and multimedia messages, and not carrying a gadget ‘on oneself’ (in shirt or trousers pockets). This will allow a significant reduction in negative effects produced by RF EMF, in particular, by mobile phones / smartphones, on the growing generations’ health
Open access: https://doi.org/10.
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Wireless sensitivity and co-morbidities: A prevalence study in Australia, Canada, and the United States
McCredden JE, McLean L, Steinemann A. Wireless sensitivity and co-morbidities: A prevalence study in Australia, Canada, and the United States. Next Research. Volume 8, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.nexres.2026.101577.
Abstract
Wireless radiation—such as from cell phones, Wi-Fi, smart meters, laptops, and cell towers—is pervasive in society. Wireless sensitivity is the condition of adverse health effects from exposure to wireless radiation. This study investigates the prevalence of wireless sensitivity, and the medical diagnosis of electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS), in the general population of three countries: the United States (US), Australia (AU), and Canada (CA). It also investigates the prevalence of wireless sensitivity/EHS with co-morbid conditions: chemical sensitivity/multiple chemical sensitivities (MCS), asthma/asthma-related conditions (ARCs), autism/autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), and fragrance sensitivity. Nationally representative population-based data were collected in February 2022 (US, AU) and May 2022 (CA) through online surveys of adults [n=3,475 (1,271; 1,104; 1,100) US, AU, CA, respectively]. The study found that, across the general population, 12.6% reported wireless sensitivity (12.8%, 17.4%, 7.5%), 10.0% reported medically diagnosed electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) (10.1%, 14.9%, 5.0%), and 14.0% reported either or both (14.3%, 18.9%, 8.7%). Among all gender and age categories, males ages 25 to 34 reported the highest prevalence proportionally. In addition, among those with wireless sensitivity/EHS, 80.6% also reported chemical sensitivity/MCS, 73.2% reported asthma/ARCs, 53.8% reported autism/ASDs, and 84.8% reported fragrance sensitivity. Given these results, across the three countries, over 26 million adults would experience health problems from wireless radiation. Results underscore the need for further research on ways to prevent and reduce exposures and associated adverse effects.
Excerpts
Nationally representative cross-sectional population surveys of adults (ages 18–65) were conducted in the US, AU, and CA. Population samples (n=1,271; 1,104; 1,100; respectively) were statistically matched to age, gender, and region for the general population (confidence limit = 95%, margin of error = 3%, for each country)....
Participants were randomly recruited from large web-based panels, provided by Survey Sampling International/Dynata (SSI/D). Participant recruitment followed a three-stage process: first, participants were randomly selected from SSI/D panels and invited to take an on-line survey; second, participants were combined with others into SSI/D's sampling platform and responded to randomly selected profiling questions; and third, prospective participants were then randomly assigned to a survey. Participants were recruited for the survey until the final sample was statistically representative of the general population for gender, age, and region. Informed consent was obtained. Completion rates were 89% (US), 96% (AU), and 91% (CA), and all responses were anonymous. (See the ESM, "Survey Methodology," "Questionnaire," "STROBE Flow Diagram," and "SSI/Dynata Methodologies.")....
The survey instrument employed the following questions to assess prevalence:
Wireless sensitivity: "Do you consider yourself allergic or unusually sensitive to wireless radiation, such as from cell phones, Wi-Fi, smart meters, laptops, and other types of wireless technologies and devices?"
Medically diagnosed EHS (electromagnetic [hyper]sensitivity): "Has a doctor or health care professional ever told you that you have electromagnetic sensitivity?"
Conclusions
National population surveys in the United States, Australia, and Canada showed that 12.6% (12.8%, 17.4%, 7.5%) of adults reported wireless sensitivity, affecting an estimated 26.7 million adults across the three countries. In addition, 10.0% of adults reported receiving a medical diagnosis of EHS, and 14.0% reported having wireless sensitivity/EHS. Vulnerable individuals with other health conditions—such as chemical sensitivity, asthma, autism, and fragrance sensitivity—are proportionally even more affected. Among all gender and age groups, the relatively most affected by wireless sensitivity was males ages 25-34. Results accentuate the need for further research on specific sources and associated health effects; disease mechanisms underlying wireless sensitivity; and ways to prevent and reduce exposures (such as through alternative means to access the internet) and improve public health.
Given that wireless radiation affects an estimated one in seven adults, the race to implement new wireless technologies under the rubric of “sustainability” needs parallel consideration of possible effects on the environment, social equity, and economics. Reducing exposures to wireless radiation can improve outcomes for sustainability. Environmentally, reducing exposures may lessen potential harm to human health and environmental systems. Socially, reducing exposures may lower barriers to access and participation and productivity in wireless-dependent workplaces, services, and public spaces. Economically, reducing exposures may decrease costs associated with lost workforce participation and increased healthcare needs.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
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Is occupational exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields associated with glioma risk? An Australian population-based family case-control study
My note: The paper's discussion section indicates that in addition to several strengths, the study had several major weaknesses including inadequate statistical power to detect small or moderate effects.
Mate R, Benke G, Loughran SP, Abramson MJ, Vjadic C, Turner M, Turuban M, Cardis E, Karipidis K. Is occupational exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields associated with glioma risk? An Australian population-based family case-control study. BMJ Open. 2026 Mar 12;16(3):e107281. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2025-107281.
Abstract
Objectives: This study investigated occupational exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) using two job-exposure matrices (JEMs) and risk of glioma.
Design: Population-based family case-control study.
Setting: Cases were recruited from participating hospitals in the Australian states of New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia and Victoria between January 2013 and November 2017.
Participants: The study population consisted of 467 cases of glioma and 367 family controls recruited for the Australian Genomics and Clinical Outcomes of Glioma case-control study between 2013 and 2017. Participants completed questionnaires on demographic and other information, including a detailed occupational history.
Exposures: Exposure to RF EMF was estimated using both the multicountry case-control study INTEROCC JEM and the Canadian JEM (CANJEM).
Primary outcome measures: ORs and 95% CIs were calculated from logistic regression models adjusted for relatedness between cases and controls, sex, age, ethnicity, education level, smoking status and alcohol consumption.
Results: There was no statistically significant positive association overall for risk of glioma when applying either JEM. For the highest compared with the lowest quartile of lifetime exposure, results using the INTEROCC JEM showed an OR of 0.74 (95% CI 0.47 to 1.15) for electric fields and 0.92 (95% CI 0.58 to 1.45) for magnetic fields, while the CANJEM showed an OR of 0.85 (95% CI 0.54 to 1.32). We also did not observe associations when applying different assumptions regarding latency or time windows or with glioma grade.
Conclusion: Overall, this study found no evidence of an association between occupational RF EMF exposure and glioma. Future research should focus on refining occupational RF EMF exposure assessment.
Open access: https://bmjopen.bmj.
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Cancer incidence in telecommunication and broadcasting workers in the United Kingdom: Preliminary analysis of the National Register of RF Workers
My note: This is a preliminary study as a diagnosis of cancer may require 30 years of followup.
Litchfield I. Cancer incidence in telecommunication and broadcasting workers in the United Kingdom: Preliminary analysis of the National Register of RF Workers. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, Volume 274, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2026.114785.
Abstract
Objectives There is a broadly acknowledged need for more robust research exploring the potential health effects of occupational radiofrequency radiation (RF) exposure. The National Register of RF Workers is a long-standing database consisting of workers that typically work outside and are occupationally exposed to RF in the telecommunication and broadcast industries in the United Kingdom. This work describes the initial preliminary analysis of the cohort comparing cancer incidence at multiple sites with that observed in the general population.
Methods Cancer registration (incidence) details from NHS Digital were used and standardised registration rates (SRR) calculated as the ratio of observed to expected numbers of registrations expressed as a percentage. In calculating P-values and confidence intervals, it was assumed that registrations occurred following a Poisson distribution. All significance tests were two-tailed.
Results The cohort comprised 1777 employees (1744 males and 33 females) Compared with national rates, all cancers combined are slightly below expectation (Observed 39, SRR 93). The only statistically significant finding is for an excess of skin cancer (excluding melanoma) (Observed 25, SRR 177, 95% CI 117 to 258, P < 0.01).
Conclusions Amongst legitimate concerns over the health effects of long-term occupational exposure to RF in the telecommunication and broadcast sector it is important not to overlook the significant hazard of exposure to ultraviolet radiation in a workforce that predominantly works outside. There are several ways organisations might mitigate this impact including amending working hours during the summer months and culturally tailored education on the importance of individual preventative measures.
Open access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/
Abstract
Objectives There is a broadly acknowledged need for more robust research exploring the potential health effects of occupational radiofrequency radiation (RF) exposure. The National Register of RF Workers is a long-standing database consisting of workers that typically work outside and are occupationally exposed to RF in the telecommunication and broadcast industries in the United Kingdom. This work describes the initial preliminary analysis of the cohort comparing cancer incidence at multiple sites with that observed in the general population.
Methods Cancer registration (incidence) details from NHS Digital were used and standardised registration rates (SRR) calculated as the ratio of observed to expected numbers of registrations expressed as a percentage. In calculating P-values and confidence intervals, it was assumed that registrations occurred following a Poisson distribution. All significance tests were two-tailed.
Results The cohort comprised 1777 employees (1744 males and 33 females) Compared with national rates, all cancers combined are slightly below expectation (Observed 39, SRR 93). The only statistically significant finding is for an excess of skin cancer (excluding melanoma) (Observed 25, SRR 177, 95% CI 117 to 258, P < 0.01).
Conclusions Amongst legitimate concerns over the health effects of long-term occupational exposure to RF in the telecommunication and broadcast sector it is important not to overlook the significant hazard of exposure to ultraviolet radiation in a workforce that predominantly works outside. There are several ways organisations might mitigate this impact including amending working hours during the summer months and culturally tailored education on the importance of individual preventative measures.
Open access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/
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Radiofrequency exposure to LTE signal does not alter cancer-related endpoints in human neuroblastoma cell model either alone, or co-exposed to menadione or Wi-Fi signal
Allocca M, Scarfì MR, Romeo S, Sannino A, Peluso V, Zeni O. Radiofrequency exposure to LTE signal does not alter cancer-related endpoints in human neuroblastoma cell model either alone, or co-exposed to menadione or Wi-Fi signal. Environmental Research, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2026.124292.
Abstract
Despite the long-term evolution (LTE) signal, also known as fourth generation (4G) technology, is the most employed and widely deployed system for telecommunications, only a few in vitro studies are devoted to assessing the biological effects related to exposure to LTE alone and in combination with other agents. To the best of our knowledge, the effect of simultaneous exposure to 4G LTE with other frequencies/signals has not been evaluated in any of these studies. In the present study we investigated the non-thermal carcinogenic effect of LTE signal under a co-exposure realistic scenario. Human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) were exposed for three hours to 1950 MHz LTE signal, either alone or in combination with the chemical agent menadione. Moreover, the effect of simultaneous exposure to 1950 MHz, 4G LTE signal and 2450 MHz Wireless-Fidelity (Wi-Fi) signal was also evaluated to account for possible effects due to the co-existence of these frequencies/signals. A waveguide-based exposure system, well characterized from dosimetric and experimental point of view, was used, and two specific absorption rate values, 0.3 and 1.25 W/kg, were tested in all cases. Cancer-related endpoints such as reactive oxygen species formation, apoptosis, and cell cycle progression were assessed in flow cytometry assays. In our experimental conditions, neither LTE exposure alone nor LTE and menadione co-exposure or multiple LTE and Wi-Fi exposure influenced the investigated cellular parameters in SH-SY5Y cells.
Highlights
• Exposure to electromagnetic fields occurs from different wireless technologies
• Co-exposures to electromagnetic fields and chemicals represent a real-life scenario
• Well controlled and characterized radiofrequency exposure conditions
• Effects of 4G and Wi-Fi/Menadione co-exposures were tested in neuroblastoma cells
• No effects of co-exposures were detected on cancer related endpoints
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Near-field and far-field exposures to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields and cancer risks in humans: a protocol for an umbrella review of epidemiological studies
Ziegler JL, Lagorio S, Mattsson MO, Zeni O, Bolte J, Ledent M, Velghe M, Stam R, Rijs K, Deltour I, Dolatkhah R, Wollschläger D, Petroulakis N, Ortolano LC, Baaken D. Near-field and far-field exposures to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields and cancer risks in humans: a protocol for an umbrella review of epidemiological studies. Syst Rev. 2026 Mar 12. doi: 10.1186/s13643-026-03142-9.
Abstract
Background: Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF; frequencies 100 kHz to 300 GHz) is ubiquitous. As the use of RF-EMF has grown steadily since the 1950s due to advances in telecommunications and other technologies, concerns about potential health effects have persisted. The World Health Organization (WHO) identified key areas of concern, with cancer being most frequently rated as critical. To synthesize evidence on the association between RF-EMF exposure and neoplastic diseases, we will carry out two separate umbrella reviews to account for different RF-EMF exposure conditions: one will focus on near-field exposure and the other on far-field exposure. Both umbrella reviews will include RF-EMF exposure in living and occupational settings.
Methods: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of human observational studies on RF-EMF and cancer were searched in MEDLINE, Web of Science Core Collection, EMF-Portal, and Epistemonikos databases. Eligibility criteria will follow the PECOS (Population, Exposure, Comparator, Outcome, Study type) scheme. Eligibility and quality of the identified articles will be evaluated by two reviewers independently. The tools AMSTAR 2 (A MeaSurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews) and ROBIS (Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews) will be used to systematically assess methodological quality and risk of bias. Data will be extracted and summarized in a qualitative synthesis using standardized forms and presented in text and tables.
Discussion: These umbrella reviews aim to offer a comprehensive overview of the topic by including systematic reviews and meta-analyses that studied cancer-related health effects of near-field and far-field RF-EMF exposure. In addition, a risk of bias rating will be performed to assess the quality of existing systematic reviews and meta-analyses in the field.
Systematic review registration: PROSPERO CRD42024529007.
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Belenki et al. criticizes WHO animal cancer systematic review (SR) by Mevissen et al. and conducts own meta-analysis (MA); Mevissen et al. defends their SR and criticizes Belenki et al. MA
Belenki D, Baaken D, Meyer F, Kuhne J. Commentary on the systematic review of radiofrequency field exposure and animal cancer by Mevissen et al. (2025) – Revisiting the evidence and a quantitative perspective. Environment International. 2026,doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2026.110154.
Abstract
The systematic review by Mevissen et al. (2025, Environment International) evaluated the evidence on the carcinogenicity of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) in laboratory animals and concluded with a high certainty of evidence (CoE) that exposure to RF-EMF increases the risk of malignant glioma and malignant schwannoma in the brain and heart, respectively. Deviating from their pre-published systematic review protocol, the authors did not perform meta-analyses. Instead, they based their assessment on whether or not statistically significant increases in tumour rates were observed in the included studies. One positive finding was deemed sufficient to conclude an adverse effect of RF-EMF exposure in a specific organ, thereby setting the target of the CoE rating for that organ. Here, we question this approach because it does not consider all the available evidence, and highlight further methodologically inconsistent decisions, while laying out a quantitative alternative based on the protocol and common guidelines for systematic reviews. Re-assessing the eligible long-term carcinogenicity experiments, we consider important studies to be sufficiently similar to be combined in a meta-analysis (MA). We calculate odds ratios as the effect measure and perform MA as well as dose–response MA. Rating the results using GRADE and OHAT guidance, we downgrade the CoE for imprecision due to the very wide confidence intervals of the pooled odds ratios, and upgrade the CoE for malignant heart schwannomas because of a positive exposure–response association, concluding moderate and low CoE for carcinogenicity of RF-EMF exposures in the heart and brain, respectively. In summary, our quantitative assessment of the evidence results in lower CoE conclusions than those of Mevissen et al.
Highlights
• Revisiting and scrutinising the systematic review by Mevissen et al. (2025).
• Relevant chronic bioassays on radiofrequency and cancer combinable in meta-analyses.
• Odds ratio-based (dose–response) meta-analyses for quantitative results synthesis.
• Moderate certainty of evidence for increased risk of malignant heart tumours.
• Low certainty of evidence for increased risk of malignant brain tumours.
Supplementary Files: https://
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Rationale for a narrative approach in assessing RF-EMF in animal cancer studies
Mevissen M, Ducray A, Ward JM, Kopp-Schneider A, Wood AW, Rivero TM, Straif K. Rationale for a narrative approach in assessing RF-EMF in animal cancer studies. Environment International. 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2026.110153.
No abstract
Excerpts
1. Systematic review methodology for animal cancer bioassays
1.1. Meta-analysis versus narrative analysis for the RF-EMF animal cancer studies?
Belenki et al. stated that we deviated from the protocol in not conducting a meta-analysis. Our published protocol clearly states the conditions when a meta-analysis would be performed (Mevissen et al., 2022). None of the study collections satisfied the necessary criteria, we acted in concordance with the protocol and refrained from conducting meta-analyses. The use of meta-analysis was deemed unsuitable primarily due to methodological and biological variations among the animal models, including differences in species, genetically modified organisms, feeding practices, and caging protocols.
Belenki et al. performed a meta-analysis using different species and strains. There are many known examples where a difference in species and even the strain within a species is very important for the outcome, e.g., atrazine and others. For example, atrazine has been classified by the IARC as probably carcinogenic in humans with the evidence from the animal studies being sufficient (Cattley et al., 2025)....
While acknowledging the strain differences (SD or F344) in studies that examined the brain, they combined them anyway in their analysis with the argument that these strains are widely used in carcinogenicity studies. This is not a reasonable argument for combining divergent studies. The example above clearly shows that this can lead to results that are mistaken. For this reason, it is biologically appropriate to view a negative finding in one species/strain/sex as not outweighing a positive result in a different species/strain/sex, and results from experiments across different sexes/species/strains should be pooled only with great caution. This principle is explicitly stated in many of the guidelines referenced previously and was clearly delineated in our published study protocol.....
Additionally, there were discrepancies in exposure characteristics (such as far-field versus near-field and modulation) and experimental parameters (including the timing, duration, and type of exposure system). The reasons for not employing meta-analyses, such as heterogeneity and biological inappropriateness, are also detailed in our systematic review. Tests for statistical heterogeneity (particularly when only few studies are included in a meta-analysis) cannot address biological differences. Belenki et al. acknowledged that the exposure characteristics differed, and different strains of rats were tested. Regardless, they relied on “common” guidance that is not suitable for evidence synthesis and certainty of evidence for long-term cancer experiments (LTCE). While we performed an SR on all cancer studies and sites available, Belenki et al. limited their meta-analysis only to the two cancer sites, brain and heart, where our SR concluded on high CoE, indicating their focus on challenging our positive findings. They also considered the study design using different strains and sexes as similar and did not consider them being biologically heterogenous. Based on this procedure, they downgraded the evidence twice regarding wide confidence intervals. We strongly disagree with the choices they made in defining a data set for the meta-analysis as it contradicts basic principles in toxicology, and in particular in animal cancer bioassays. The statement by Belenki et al. that a meta-analysis should not be conducted over different strains and sexes are contradictory to what was done and clearly show their lack of understanding of the toxicological literature. A negative finding in one species, strain, or sex does not necessarily undermine a positive result observed in another, as biological consistency supports evaluating such differences without automatic downweighing. Combining data across these variables requires careful, judicious consideration to avoid overgeneralization. This principle aligns explicitly with guidelines referenced previously and the published study protocol (https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/
Finally, there are shortcomings when using odds ratio/relative risk (OR/RR) as the effect estimate for a meta-analysis. Different background rates of targeted tumours between species, strains and sexes can create false evaluations, especially in the case of rare tumors. More specifically, the choice of RR effect estimates (here ORs) should not be based on model convenience but guided by the appropriate effect estimate by study design, here risk, rate or hazard ratio – not OR. Collapsing multiple exposure groups into a single exposure group, essentially introduces serious non-differential exposure misclassification with a likely bias towards the null and is incompatible with guidelines for the design of LTCE.
1.2. Risk of bias
Our risk of bias (RoB) assessment was rigorous....
1.3. Data extraction and trend tests
1.3.1. Deviation from inclusion
Fig. 11A. Brain-related carcinogenicity of malignant neoplasms derived from glial cells − Exposure Array – of chronic bioassays. The dashed lines separate species and sex. For additional details see interactive graphic in HAWC (Anderson et al. 2004; Falcioni et al. 2018; La Regina et al. 2003; National Toxicology Program 2018a; b). Data not shown for studies where data were only presented in figures or described qualitatively.
Fig. 11B. Brain-related carcinogenicity of malignant neoplasms derived from glial cells − Effect Size – of chronic bioassays. The dashed lines separate species and sex. This is a thumbnail image of an interactive graphic in HAWC. Data not shown for studies where data were only presented in figures or described qualitatively.
1.4. Use of historical controls in animal cancer studies
2. Consistency across studies
The authors have incorrectly portrayed our review as failing to account for the totality of the evidence. A central element of our approach to assessing consistency across studies was to explicitly evaluate potential reasons for divergent results (e.g., species, strain, sex, life stage at exposure and assessment; exposure or treatment duration, level, or timing in relation to the outcome; and key methodological features such as route of administration and outcome assessment methods). We observed heterogeneity in study design that could plausibly account for the inconsistent findings.
3. Downgrading and upgrading
4. Considering the confidence of the evidence
5. Precision and imprecision
6. The NTP study – Assessment of scientific rigor
7. Conclusions
Drawing conclusions from flawed MAs that pool incompatible studies is inappropriate, and using such results to inform risk assessment or decision-making is misleading. In fact, two independent positive results for different target organs typically provide evidence for strict regulation as a carcinogen. The concerns raised by Belenki et al. highlight specific shortcomings in their application of toxicological principles, particularly regarding hazard identification and the use of modern approaches in experimental carcinogenesis. Considering their analyses, the outcome only differs because of the downgrading (2 times) done by them. The methodology used in our evaluation of the data has been applied appropriately.
Supplementary data: https://
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Brain Accumulation of Airborne Magnetite Nanoparticles under Earphone/Smartphone-Embedded Magnetic Fields Triggers Neurotoxicity
Zhang W, Deng S, Guo H, Hao S, Ji N, Xu W, Yang X, Liu Q, Jiang G. Brain Accumulation of Airborne Magnetite Nanoparticles under Earphone/Smartphone-Embedded Magnetic Fields Triggers Neurotoxicity. ACS Nano. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5c22066.
Abstract
Magnetism is an important property of nanomaterials. Natural, incidental, and engineered magnetic nanoparticles are ubiquitous in nature and human activities. As an air pollutant, magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs) can enter the human body and even the brain, posing serious health concerns. However, unlike other physicochemical properties such as size, shape, or surface chemistry, the influence of magnetism on nanoparticle biodistribution and toxicity remains unclear. The manifestation of nanoparticle magnetism requires exposure to magnetic fields, which are ubiquitous in daily life, such as those from mobile phones and earphones. Here, we used six-to eight-week-old C57BL/6J mice coexposed to airborne MNPs and earphone/smartphone-embedded magnetism (EEM) to investigate the impact of nanomaterial magnetism on the in vivo fate and neurotoxicity of inhaled nanoparticles. Co-exposure significantly impaired cognitive performance, as evidenced by reduced target quadrant entries and increased escape latency in the Morris water maze (p < 0.01). EEM increased brain accumulation of inhaled MNPs by approximately 5-fold compared to non-EEM controls. Transcriptomics, immunohistochemistry, metallomics, and reactome profiling, revealed neurodegeneration-related molecular alterations enriched in the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) and guanosine triphosphatase-associated signaling pathways. Compared to exposure to non-EEM, or nonmagnetic engineered iron oxide nanoparticles or magnetism-reduced fine particulate matter (PM2.5), the magnetism-mediated toxicity mechanism induced more severe behavioral damage in mice. Our findings reveal the link between nanomaterial magnetism and toxicity, discovering that exogenous nanoparticles can act as a direct medium in vivo for the health impacts of magnetic field exposure, and provide novel insights into the health impacts of magnetic field exposure and air pollution.
Conclusions
Our results demonstrate that static magnetic fields produced by mobile phones and earphones can enhance the accumulation of airborne MNPs in the mouse brain, which is associated with neurological impairments. This provides in vivo evidence supporting a mechanistic link between nanoparticle magnetism and toxicity. The EEM-induced accumulation of MNPs in the brain, combined with multiomic alterations, may activate MAPK pathways through interactions with small GTPases, (50) contributing to neurotoxicity by reducing neuroplasticity and disrupting gene expression in the hippocampus. These results establish biological plausibility for magnetically enhanced neurotoxicity and identify an exogenous physical mediator for nanoparticle–brain interactions. While our work mimics aspects of magnetic exposure from mobile phones and earphones, the present model represents an acute/subacute exposure in young mice and does not establish disease causality or long-term health effects in humans. Further chronic exposure and epidemiological studies are needed to determine the relevance of these mechanisms to real-world exposure scenarios.
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Electromagnetic Exposure Assessment of 5G Mobile Phones: SAR and Thermal Distribution in a Multi-Layer Human Head Model
My note: Another "5G paper" that did not assess 5G exposure.
Chen D, Zhang B. Electromagnetic Exposure Assessment of 5G Mobile Phones: SAR and Thermal Distribution in a Multi-Layer Human Head Model. Sensors. 2026; 26(5):1468. doi: 10.3390/s26051468.
Abstract
The rapid deployment of 5G technology has raised public concern regarding the potential health effects of electromagnetic radiation from mobile devices. This study systematically evaluates the specific absorption rate (SAR) and temperature distribution in a multi-layer spherical head model exposed to near-field radiation from a 5G mobile phone antenna. A planar inverted-F antenna (PIFA) covering the 3.5 GHz band was integrated into a smartphone model, and simulations were performed in COMSOL Multiphysics 6.3 under input powers of 21 dBm and 24 dBm at varying antenna–head distances. The results show that the peak SAR in the brain layer remained at 0.034 W/kg and 0.065 W/kg for the two power levels, both well below the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) safety limit of 2 W/kg. The highest SAR occurred in the scalp layer, decreasing gradually through the skull and brain tissues. After 30 min of exposure, the maximum brain temperature reached only 37.223 °C, far lower than the thermal damage threshold. Increasing the antenna–head distance from 5 mm to 30 mm reduced SAR by up to 50.2%, while temperature variations remained negligible (≤0.18%). These findings demonstrate that under typical usage conditions, 5G mobile phone radiation complies with international safety standards and poses no significant thermal risk, thereby contributing to a deeper understanding of bio-electromagnetic interactions and supporting ongoing wireless-communication safety assessments.
3.5. Limitations and Considerations for Realistic Exposure Assessment
The exposure metrics presented in this work are derived under the assumption of a continuous-wave source, which serves as a standardized and reproducible benchmark. It is important to contextualize these findings within the framework of actual 5G New Radio (NR) transmissions. Commercial 5G systems employ complex modulated waveforms, primarily Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM), characterized by a high Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) and a non-constant envelope. This results in significant temporal variations in the instantaneous radiated power. While the time-averaged SAR is expected to correlate with results from a CW analysis of equivalent average power, the transient peak field strengths associated with OFDM symbols could influence localized, short-term energy deposition patterns and related transient thermal responses in tissue. These dynamics represent an additional layer of complexity beyond the scope of the present steady-state model. Therefore, future investigations aiming for the highest fidelity in exposure assessment should incorporate detailed temporal models of specific 5G NR modulation schemes, resource allocation patterns, and traffic bursts to evaluate their potential effects on peak spatial and temporal exposure metrics.
4. Conclusions
This study designed a smartphone-integrated antenna model capable of operating across multiple communication bands, including GSM-850/900, DCS-1800, PCS-1900, UMTS-2000, WiMAX-2300, LTE-2300/2500, and the 5G-representative frequency of 3.5 GHz. The specific absorption rate (SAR) distributions in the scalp, skull, and brain layers of a human head model were systematically evaluated under near-field exposure at 3500 MHz with input powers of 21 dBm and 24 dBm, at a separation distance of 5 mm. The results indicate that the SAR in the brain layer at 24 dBm was approximately twice that at 21 dBm. In both cases, the highest SAR occurred in the scalp layer, yet all values remained well below the ICNIRP safety limit of 2 W/kg. Moreover, the maximum SAR observed in the brain layer corresponded to the peak surface temperature in the same region; however, this temperature increase remained within a physiologically negligible range and poses no risk of thermal injury.
Further analysis revealed that after 10 min of exposure, the temperature rise in the scalp layer became lower than that in the brain layer. Following 30 min of radiation, the temperature variation across the head model progressively stabilized, showing only minimal changes compared to the 10-min mark. In terms of distance dependence, when the antenna–head distance increased from 5 mm to 10 mm (in 1 mm steps), the decrease in SAR across all tissue layers was relatively gradual. A more pronounced reduction up to 50.2% was observed when the distance was extended from 10 mm to 30 mm (in 5 mm steps). In contrast, the corresponding temperature changes across tissues were markedly less sensitive to distance, with a maximum decrease of only 0.18% over the same range.
In conclusion, this study employs a canonical multi-layer spherical head model to perform a systematic, parametric analysis of electromagnetic exposure from a 5G mobile phone antenna at 3.5 GHz. The results provide clear quantitative trends regarding the dependence of SAR and temperature rise on key variables such as input power and antenna-to-head distance. It is important to interpret these findings as illustrative of fundamental biophysical interactions under controlled conditions, rather While the simplified geometry of our head model dictates that the absolute SAR and temperature values are scenario-specific, the key relationships and patterns we identify are robust and physically meaningful. These patterns offer crucial insights for safety-by-design principles in antenna development and help contextualize the rationale behind standardized compliance testing. Moving forward, extending this parametric approach to diverse anatomical models and higher 5G frequency bands will be essential for building a comprehensive, evidence-based understanding of human exposure in next-generation wireless networks.
Furthermore, the evolution toward advanced antenna systems, such as those employing beamforming and massive MIMO, opens a promising frontier for proactive exposure control. in the future, our work will explore the paradigm of “Exposure-Aware Beamforming.” This would involve developing intelligent algorithms that leverage real-time sensor or channel data to infer device-body orientation and dynamically steer beams away from the user, thereby integrating safety as an active optimization goal within the communication system itself.
Open access: https://www.mdpi.com/
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Biological effects of 5G-modulated 700 MHz RF-EMF exposure on neuronal and glial cell models under isothermal conditions
Puginier, E., Leclercq, L., Poulletier de Gannes, F. et al. Biological effects of 5G-modulated 700 MHz RF-EMF exposure on neuronal and glial cell models under isothermal conditions. Sci Rep 16, 10767 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/
Abstract
Whether radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) at wireless telecommunication frequencies can alter brain physiology remains a matter of debate. The 700 MHz band, recently allocated for 4G and early 5G deployment, is increasingly prevalent in the environment, yet its biological effects are poorly documented. Here, we investigated the impact of 700 MHz 5G-modulated RF-EMF exposure on two complementary central nervous system cell models: primary rat cortical astrocytes and human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Cells were exposed in transverse electromagnetic (TEM) cells at specific absorption rates (SAR) of 0.08 W/kg and 4 W/kg, for 1 h or 24 h, and analyzed immediately or after a 24 h recovery period. Multiparametric flow cytometry quantified mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), cell viability, and apoptosis stratified as early and late, together with astrocytes’ proliferation. Across all exposure conditions, no statistically significant differences were detected compared to sham controls, while positive controls with hydrogen peroxide elicited significant increases in ROS and apoptosis, validating assay sensitivity. These results demonstrate that, under strictly controlled iso-thermal conditions, 5G-modulated 700 MHz RF-EMF exposure does not induce measurable oxidative stress, apoptosis, or proliferative alterations in astrocytic and neuronal models. Our findings provide evidence supporting the absence of acute or subacute biological effects in vitro at isothermal exposure levels up to 4 W/kg, thereby reinforcing the scientific basis for current exposure guidelines.
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The neuroprotective role of coenzyme Q10 against endoplasmic reticulum stress in the olfactory bulb caused by 5G electromagnetic field exposure
My note: Another "5G paper" that did not assess 5G exposure.
Yilmaz H, Tumkaya L, Mercantepe T, Gül F, Karakas S. The neuroprotective role of coenzyme Q10 against endoplasmic reticulum stress in the olfactory bulb caused by 5 G electromagnetic field exposure. Tissue Cell. 2026 Mar 30;101:103510. doi: 10.1016/j.tice.2026.103510.
Abstract
The widespread use of 5 G mobile communication technology has raised the possibility of neurosensory effects arising from exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF). This study investigated the effects of EMF exposure in the 5 G FR1 band on the olfactory bulb and the potential protective role of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10). Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups. Group 1 (Control) received only saline via oral gavage. Group 2 (EMF) was exposed to EMF in the 5 G FR1 band for 2 h per day (09:00-11:00) and received oral saline. Group 3 (EMF + CoQ10) underwent the same EMF exposure and additionally received 10 mg/kg CoQ10 dissolved in corn oil at 2 mg/kg orally for 30 days. At the end of the experiment, olfactory bulb tissue samples were collected from all animals. Tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) and evaluated histopathologically. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress levels were analyzed by immunohistochemical methods based on GRP78 and CHOP expression. Oxidative stress parameters, malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels, were measured in the tissue (mg/g) using biochemical methods. In the EMF group, prominent histopathological changes such as widespread glial cell abnormalities, inflammation, necrotic neurons with pyknotic nuclei, and neuronal degeneration were observed in the olfactory bulb tissue. In this group, the expressions of GRP78 and CHOP, which are markers of ER stress, and MDA levels, which are indicators of oxidative stress, were significantly increased compared to the control group, while GSH levels were decreased. In contrast, in the EMF + CoQ10 group, these adverse changes were significantly reduced, histopathological damage was significantly decreased, GRP78 and CHOP expression levels were reduced, MDA levels showed a downward trend, and GSH levels increased significantly, approaching those of the control group (p < 0.05). It was demonstrated that EMF exposure in the 5 G FR1 band causes ER stress and oxidative damage in the olfactory bulb tissue, while CoQ10 may play a protective role by reducing these harmful effects.
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Determining the Impact of Nonionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Armalina D, Susilaningsih N, Sutanto H, Sunarno S. Determining the Impact of Nonionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JMIR Res Protoc. 2026 Mar 30;15:e86479. doi: 10.2196/86479.
Abstract
Background: The widespread use of mobile devices has markedly increased global exposure to nonionizing electromagnetic waves (EMWs). Emerging evidence indicates potential biological effects of EMW exposure in susceptible populations, particularly pregnant women; however, findings remain inconsistent.
Objective: This protocol delineates a systematic review aimed at synthesizing and critically evaluating the teratogenic and pregnancy-related effects of nonionizing EMW exposure in pregnant women.
Methods: This protocol adheres to the PRISMA-P (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols) 2020 guidelines and has been registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; CRD42023475665). A comprehensive literature search will be conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Wiley Online Library, and Google Scholar, with supplementary searches of the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and ClinicalTrials.gov. Eligible studies will include pregnant women exposed to nonionizing EMWs from mobile phones and related wireless devices. The primary outcomes will be pregnancy complications and fetal anomalies, with secondary outcomes assessed as previously reported. Study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment will be performed independently by 2 reviewers. Where appropriate, a random-effects meta-analysis will be conducted.
Results: Funding for this study was secured in March 2026. The literature search and study screening are planned for April to July 2026, with data extraction, risk of bias assessment, and synthesis expected to be completed by September 2026. The final results are anticipated to be submitted for publication in late 2026.
Conclusions: This systematic review is expected to provide consolidated evidence on the potential teratogenic and pregnancy-related effects of nonionizing EMW exposure, thereby supporting future research and evidence-based recommendations for public health.
Conclusion
This protocol provides a structured and reproducible framework for systematically synthesizing evidence of nonionizing EMW exposure during pregnancy. By applying rigorous methodological standards and transparent quality assessments, the forthcoming review aims to clarify the current state of evidence while explicitly acknowledging its limitations. The conclusions will be framed cautiously, reflecting the strength and consistency of the available data and are intended to support responsible scientific interpretation and future research rather than draw definitive clinical or causal inferences.
This study was supported by the Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP), Indonesia.
Open access: https://www.researchprotocols.
Objective: This protocol delineates a systematic review aimed at synthesizing and critically evaluating the teratogenic and pregnancy-related effects of nonionizing EMW exposure in pregnant women.
Methods: This protocol adheres to the PRISMA-P (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols) 2020 guidelines and has been registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; CRD42023475665). A comprehensive literature search will be conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Wiley Online Library, and Google Scholar, with supplementary searches of the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and ClinicalTrials.gov. Eligible studies will include pregnant women exposed to nonionizing EMWs from mobile phones and related wireless devices. The primary outcomes will be pregnancy complications and fetal anomalies, with secondary outcomes assessed as previously reported. Study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment will be performed independently by 2 reviewers. Where appropriate, a random-effects meta-analysis will be conducted.
Results: Funding for this study was secured in March 2026. The literature search and study screening are planned for April to July 2026, with data extraction, risk of bias assessment, and synthesis expected to be completed by September 2026. The final results are anticipated to be submitted for publication in late 2026.
Conclusions: This systematic review is expected to provide consolidated evidence on the potential teratogenic and pregnancy-related effects of nonionizing EMW exposure, thereby supporting future research and evidence-based recommendations for public health.
Conclusion
This protocol provides a structured and reproducible framework for systematically synthesizing evidence of nonionizing EMW exposure during pregnancy. By applying rigorous methodological standards and transparent quality assessments, the forthcoming review aims to clarify the current state of evidence while explicitly acknowledging its limitations. The conclusions will be framed cautiously, reflecting the strength and consistency of the available data and are intended to support responsible scientific interpretation and future research rather than draw definitive clinical or causal inferences.
This study was supported by the Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP), Indonesia.
Open access: https://www.researchprotocols.
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Evaluation of RF-EMF Exposure in 5G FR1 Band Using IEC 62232 Assessment Methodologies
Suka D, Solmonte N, Ruttner M, Pasquino N, Djuric N. Evaluation of RF-EMF Exposure in 5G FR1 Band Using IEC 62232 Assessment Methodologies. 2025 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Green Technologies, Renewable Energy and Ecological Sustainability (MetroGREENST), Giardini Naxos (Messina), Italy, 2025, pp. 169-174, doi: 10.1109/MetroGREENST67435.
Abstract
This study examines human exposure to electro-magnetic fields (EMFs) in modern mobile networks, focusing on 5G systems in the Frequency Range 1 (FR1). The complexity introduced by technologies like Active Antenna Systems (AAS) has increased the need for accurate and efficient exposure assessment methods. While existing standards such as IEC 62232 and IEC TR 62669 offer structured procedures, this work also explores a new approach using NARDA SignalShark spectrogram data. A comparison is made between traditional extrapolation methods, including those in Sections B.8.5 and Annex E of IEC 62232, and novel technique, with an emphasis on evaluating its practical use and consistency of results.
Conclusion
This study compared established and novel methods for assessing EMF exposure from 5G base stations operating in the FR 1 band. Traditional extrapolation approaches face challenges due to complex beamforming, antenna patterns, and network traffic variability. The spectrogram-based measurement technique using the NARDA SignalShark proved robust and practical, providing reliable maximum exposure estimates without requiring operator or antenna data input. Across diverse measurement points, this method showed consistent results and simplified the extrapolation process by eliminating dependence on correction factors like F extBeam. Simulated traffic-based measurements tended to underestimate exposure under real-world conditions, highlighting the importance of realistic traffic scenarios during assessments. Manual validation indicated minor discrepancies with automatic spectrogram evaluations, suggesting scope for further algorithm refinement. Overall, the findings validate spectrogram-based measurements as a valuable tool for accurate and efficient EMF exposure evaluation and strongly support their integration into future IEC standards.
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Model Variability in Assessment of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Fields
A. Hirata et al. Model Variability in Assessment of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Fields. IEEE Journal of Microwaves, 6(2): 502-518, March 2026, doi: 10.1109/JMW.2025.3628902.
Abstract
The recent advances in computational dosimetry for electromagnetics and thermodynamics are reviewed to assess human exposure to electromagnetic fields in the MHz-to-terahertz range. This review emphasizes model variability in computational dosimetry. Apart from computational electromagnetic methods and their usage, the developments in anatomical phantoms and tissue dielectric properties characterization are also surveyed. In addition, the rationale for dosimetric quantities prescribed in international exposure guidelines, such as the specific absorption rate (SAR) and absorbed power density, is revisited in relation to their correlation with local and core temperature rises in various tissues and populations. A heating factor, which is defined as a steady-state temperature rise per SAR, for the brain, eye lens, skin, and body core is evaluated to estimate heating resulting from exposure to electromagnetic fields. The transition of a physical quantity in the guidelines at 6 GHz, from SAR to the absorbed power density, is discussed along with the optimal spatial averaging volume and areas. Computational evaluations of product compliance, 5G devices, and wireless power transfer systems are also reviewed. This review aims to synthesize the current knowledge, identify key sources of computational model variability and uncertainty, and outline further research needs for setting exposure guidelines and compliance assessment.
Summary
This review highlights the mechanism by which variability across anatomical, thermophysiological, and numerical human models affects the prediction of temperature rise in computational dosimetry. Computational dosimetry plays a crucial role in defining the physical quantities used in the guidelines and setting the limit. The conceptual framework is schematically illustrated in Fig. 1, highlighting that SAR variability is largely driven by anatomical scaling, whereas temperature rise is predominantly governed by thermophysiological parameters. To complement this, the key quantitative findings are summarized in Table 2.
Model variability and computational uncertainty in SAR showed consistent patterns across studies. For psSAR10g under local exposure, children and adults exhibit broadly similar values, although anatomical factors, such as head size, can yield higher localized absorption in children. Intermodel analyses indicated variability on the order of ∼30%, with rare extreme cases up to a threefold difference. For WBASAR, smaller and child models generally show 40%–60% higher values than adults, whereas additional variability arises from body shape, modeling method, and tissue properties (10%–30%), with polarization and incidence angle occasionally producing variations of up to ∼60%. Computational uncertainty, which arises from discretization, boundary conditions, and algorithmic implementation, is typically small; however, additional errors of ±10%–20% may occur if the parameters are not properly controlled.
The model variability in the temperature rise showed a different pattern compared with the SAR. For the brain and eye, heating factors per psSAR10g remained consistently below ∼0.12–0.19 °C · kg/W, corresponding to <0.1 °C–0.2 °C rises under guideline limits, with limited differences between adults and children. In the skin, variability is mainly due to tissue thickness and microstructure, generally accounting for 10%–20%, whereas pulse exposures highlight the importance of transient surface heating. Core temperature rise is smaller in children and higher in fetuses and the elderly; however, in occupational scenarios, environmental and clothing factors outweigh EMF-induced heating. Furthermore, vascular models, which explicitly represent major blood vessels, have demonstrated additional influence on local temperature distributions, particularly near large arteries and in deep brain regions, although their contribution is generally secondary compared to bulk blood perfusion [174], [175].
Overall, unlike SAR, where anatomical scaling and body size are the dominant sources of variability, temperature rise is more sensitive to thermal and physiological parameters, such as blood perfusion and thermoregulatory responses. While further investigations into these aspects are warranted, with several challenges already identified by international standardization bodies [10], [176], the variability observed to date remains within the margins covered by the reduction factors in ICNIRP and IEEE guidelines, supporting both the robustness of current limits and their value for future refinement. Further research is essential, particularly in view of emerging applications such as 6G.
Open access: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/--
Physiological Responses of Plants to 2.45 Ghz Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Radiation
Meenu L, Aiswarya S, Menon UKA, Menon SK. Physiological Responses of Plants to 2.45 Ghz Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Radiation. 2025 IEEE Microwaves, Antennas, and Propagation Conference (MAPCON), Kochi, India, 2025, pp. 1-4, doi: 10.1109/MAPCON65020.2025.
Abstract
This research investigates the effects of 2.45 GHz electromagnetic radiation(EMR) exposure on the germination process of high-quality pea seeds, while simultaneously assessing the influence of the same on plant growth hormones. The germinating seeds are observed in a controlled environment over a 7-day period and subjected to varying intensities of electromagnetic radiation exposure along with monitoring of all the influences from the external environment. The experimental findings reveal that the germinating seeds exposed to electromagnetic radiation from the router exhibited growth retardation ranging from 21.5 % to 57.0 % depending upon the intensity and duration of electromagnetic radiation exposure. The study could act as a proof of concept to an extent in proving that the long term exposure of EMR can inhibit at least the plant growth hormones. These findings highlight the need for a more profound understanding of the environmental consequences of electromagnetic radiation and its intricate relationship with plant growth hormones. This research could also act as scientific evidence proving the ill effects of electromagnetic radiation towards living beings.
Excerpt
Conclusion
This research investigates the relationship between electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exposure from a router and its effects on plant growth. By placing high-quality pea seeds at varying distances from the EM source and closely monitoring their germination over a week. The presence of EMR influences plant growth hormones, impacting the germination and growth of pea seeds. The average growth rates of seeds exposed to EMR were notably lower compared to the group without the influence of EMR, showcasing the direct effect of EMR on plant growth hormone activity. This provides scientific evidence on the influence of EMR on the plant physiological factors. Future research should expand the scope by conducting dose-response analyses to determine EMR thresholds, investigate molecular mechanisms at the genetic and biochemical levels, and extend observation periods to assess long-term effects on plant growth. The investigations are required to extend and evaluate the physiological responses of plants under EMR exposure across a broad spectrum of frequencies including the advanced 5G FR1 and FR2 bands to better understand their potential impacts on plant growth, metabolism, and hormonal activity. Additionally, studies should explore variations in plant species responses, conduct field studies to understand real-world implications, and develop mitigation strategies to minimize adverse effects of EMR. Collaborative efforts with policymakers and public awareness campaigns are crucial to establishing guidelines and educating communities about the environmental impacts of EMR.
Safety Assessment of Sunroof Status on Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Exposure Levels for Drivers in Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication
Song Y, Lu M. Safety Assessment of Sunroof Status on Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Exposure Levels for Drivers in Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication. Health Physics ():10.1097/HP.
Abstract
With the widespread application of vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication technology, sunroofs have enhanced user experience while introducing novel electromagnetic exposure scenarios that may pose health risks to drivers. This study employs COMSOL Multiphysics to simulate three sunroof scenarios (no sunroof, sunroof closed, and sunroof open) to assess human exposure levels. The computational models incorporate a full-scale vehicle, a V2V antenna, and an anatomical human model. The whole-body averaged specific absorption rate (SARwb) and SAR averaged over 10g tissues (SAR10g) in the central nervous system (CNS) are assessed against the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) public exposure limits. The results indicate that the sunroof open condition (worst-case exposure scenario) significantly increases SAR deposition, with SARwb reaching 0.318 mW kg-1 (0.396% of the ICNIRP limit of 0.08 W kg-1). This value represents a 1.45 times and 4.68 times increase compared to the sunroof closed and no sunroof conditions, respectively. In the worst-case exposure scenario, the superficial skin tissue exhibits the maximum SAR10g (72.39 mW kg-1), representing a 29.30% increase compared to the sunroof closed state (55.99 mW kg-1) and corresponding to only 3.62% of the ICNIRP limit (2 W kg-1). Simultaneously, CNS tissues exhibit significant increases in SAR10g values, with grey matter displaying the most pronounced elevation (9.58 times), exceeding that of white matter (9.08 times) and thalamus (8.99 times). All results remain below the ICNIRP limits, confirming that V2V communication systems pose no health risks to drivers and provide a basis for occupant protection in connected vehicles.
Conclusion
This study employs COMSOL Multiphysics-based FEM modeling to quantitatively evaluate, for the first time, the impact of sunroof configurations (no sunroof, sunroof closed, and sunroof open) on the driver’s RF electromagnetic exposure levels in V2V communication scenarios. The analysis focuses particularly on the CNS tissues.
The results show that different sunroof configurations lead to significant changes in the peak and spatial distribution of whole body-induced SAR and the SAR10g in CNS tissues. An open sunroof alters the electromagnetic field distribution inside the vehicle cabin. This results in greater energy deposition in the driver’s whole body and CNS tissues than in configurations with a closed sunroof or no sunroof. It also shifts the locations of peak energy deposition due to changes in the propagation of electromagnetic waves into the cabin.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that, despite these variations, all computed SAR values, including both SARwb and SAR10g, remain fully compliant with the ICNIRP public exposure limits. Therefore, under the investigated operational parameters, the RF-EMF exposure from the vehicle-mounted V2V communication system is not expected to pose a health risk to drivers.
This work emphasizes the significant influence of sunroof configurations on electromagnetic exposure levels during V2V communication. The observed variations in sunroof states result in a redistribution of SARwb and SAR10g. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing electromagnetic safety in vehicle design. In long-term safety evaluations, it is particularly important to consider exposure risk to the head region, especially to CNS tissues.
https://journals-lww-com.--
Radiofrequency radiation-induced changes in Leydig cell function
Jangid, P., Rai, U., Sevak, J.K. et al. Radiofrequency radiation-induced changes in Leydig cell function. Sci Rep (2026). doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-39244-6.
Abstract
Radiofrequency radiation, emitted from commonly used wireless communication devices, has been implicated in disrupting cellular homeostasis; however, its effects on testicular somatic cells such as Leydig cells remain poorly understood. To address this, the present study investigated the frequency- and time-specific effects of RFR on cellular morphology, proliferation, and cell cycle dynamics in TM3 Leydig cells. Cells were exposed to mobile phone radiation and radiofrequency signals at 1800 MHz and 2450 MHz for 15–120 min under non-thermal conditions. Following exposure, morphological alterations were examined using Giemsa staining, while proliferation and cell cycle progression were evaluated by BrdU-ELISA and PI-based flow cytometry. BrdU assays showed a progressive reduction in DNA synthesis across conditions, indicating suppressed proliferative activity. Consistently, cell cycle analysis revealed accumulation of cells in G1 phase with a corresponding decline in S-phase population at longer durations, suggesting checkpoint activation. These changes were supported by morphological alterations such as cell rounding, loss of adherence, and membrane blebbing, features associated with stress-induced antiproliferative responses. Overall, these findings indicate that RFR disrupts cellular morphology, DNA synthesis, and cell cycle progression in a frequency- and time-dependent manner, highlighting Leydig cell vulnerability to prolonged exposure and potential implications for male reproductive health.
Open access: https://www.nature.
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Cellular redox disruption and apoptosis: Differential effects of RFR frequencies on Leydig cells
Jangid P, Rai U, Sevak TK, Singh S, Singh R. Cellular redox disruption and apoptosis: Differential effects of RFR frequencies on Leydig cells. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2026.117807.
Abstract
Radiofrequency radiation (RFR), widely emitted from modern wireless devices, has raised questions regarding its possible impact on male reproductive health. In this comparative study, we examined the redox and apoptotic responses of TM3 Leydig cells following exposure to mobile phone radiation, as well as 2450 MHz, and 1800 MHz frequencies for 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 & 120 min, and redox imbalance was assessed by quantifying nitric oxide (NO) and intracellular superoxide (SO) levels. Apoptotic cell percentages were evaluated by dual labeling with Annexin V-FITC/PI using flow cytometry. Mobile phone and 2450 MHz exposures induced biphasic alterations in NO levels, while 1800 MHz exposure resulted in a sustained reduction in NO. SO levels increased progressively in a time- and frequency-specific manner. Apoptotic analysis revealed early apoptotic activation in mobile and 2450 MHz groups, whereas 1800 MHz exposure led to delayed but sustained late-stage apoptosis. These findings demonstrate that RFR triggers redox imbalance and apoptosis in TM3 cells, with effects varying by frequency and exposure duration. This comparative analysis underscores the biological risks of chronic low-intensity RFR exposure and highlights the growing concerns about RFR-associated testicular stress and its implications for male reproductive toxicity.
Jangid P, Rai U, Sevak TK, Singh S, Singh R. Cellular redox disruption and apoptosis: Differential effects of RFR frequencies on Leydig cells. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2026.117807.
Abstract
Radiofrequency radiation (RFR), widely emitted from modern wireless devices, has raised questions regarding its possible impact on male reproductive health. In this comparative study, we examined the redox and apoptotic responses of TM3 Leydig cells following exposure to mobile phone radiation, as well as 2450 MHz, and 1800 MHz frequencies for 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 & 120 min, and redox imbalance was assessed by quantifying nitric oxide (NO) and intracellular superoxide (SO) levels. Apoptotic cell percentages were evaluated by dual labeling with Annexin V-FITC/PI using flow cytometry. Mobile phone and 2450 MHz exposures induced biphasic alterations in NO levels, while 1800 MHz exposure resulted in a sustained reduction in NO. SO levels increased progressively in a time- and frequency-specific manner. Apoptotic analysis revealed early apoptotic activation in mobile and 2450 MHz groups, whereas 1800 MHz exposure led to delayed but sustained late-stage apoptosis. These findings demonstrate that RFR triggers redox imbalance and apoptosis in TM3 cells, with effects varying by frequency and exposure duration. This comparative analysis underscores the biological risks of chronic low-intensity RFR exposure and highlights the growing concerns about RFR-associated testicular stress and its implications for male reproductive toxicity.
Highlights
• TM3 cells exposed to RFR showed frequency-specific redox imbalance.
• Mobile and 2450 MHz exposures induced biphasic nitric oxide alterations.
• Superoxide levels increased progressively with RFR exposure.
• Annexin V-FITC/PI staining revealed frequency-dependent apoptotic changes.
• Short term RFR exposure may impair testicular function and redox homeostasis.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
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Comparison of Static & Oscillating Magnetic Field Effects on Gram-Negative & Gram-Positive Bacteria via Oxidative Stress and DNA Fragmentation
Baş H, Çavuş HK, Morley N, Şahingöz R. Relative Comparison of the Static Magnetic Field and Oscillating Magnetic Field Effects on Gram-Negative and Gram-Positive Bacteria via Evaluating Oxidative Stress and DNA Fragmentation. Bioelectromagnetics. 2026 Mar;47(3):e70050. doi: 10.1002/bem.
Abstract
The effects of static magnetic field (SMF) and oscillating magnetic field (OMF) on oxidative stress responses and DNA fragmentation were investigated in Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Bacterial cultures were exposed to magnetic field intensities ranging from 2 to 16 mT at 50 Hz for 8 h. Exposure to both SMF and OMF caused intensity-dependent decreases in optical density, indicating growth inhibition. In parallel, nitric oxide and superoxide anion radical levels, as well as the activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase, increased significantly in a field-strength-dependent manner. Glutathione disulfide levels were enhanced while reduced glutathione values decreased, reflecting a redox imbalance. Moreover, malondialdehyde and DNA fragmentation levels were markedly elevated, confirming oxidative and genotoxic stress. Comparative analysis revealed that E. coli exhibited more pronounced responses than S. aureus, with significant effects emerging above approximately 6-8 mT for OMF and 8-10 mT for SMF exposure. Overall, these findings demonstrate that both OMF and SMF can induce oxidative stress and DNA damage in bacterial cells, with OMF producing stronger effects. The results highlight the differential susceptibility of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria to electromagnetic exposure and suggest potential implications for non-antibiotic antimicrobial strategies based on magnetic fields.
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Electric field strengths & current densities induced inside the body due to Electronic Article Surveillance system antennas compared to ICNIRP's exposure limits
Schneeweiss P, Hirtl R, Jhala T, Ueberbacher R, Cecil S, Becker C, Boemmels I, Altekoester C, Schmid G. Electric field strengths and current densities induced inside the body due to exposure to Electronic Article Surveillance (EAS) system antennas compared to ICNIRP's exposure limits. J Radiol Prot. 2026 Mar 20. doi: 10.1088/1361-6498/ae553b.
Abstract
Personal exposure to magnetic fields emitted by electronic article surveillance (EAS) systems was systematically assessed based on measurements of a representative sample of 19 different EAS devices. This sample included the two major EAS technologies currently on the market: acoustomagnetic (AM) and radio frequency (RF) systems. In addition to these measurements, numerical computations of the current densities and electric field strengths induced in body tissues were carried out for one representative AM-EAS device and several body models (adult male, adult female, child female, and a hand model) and reasonably foreseeable worst-case exposure scenarios using a real-valued magneto quasi-static solver, based on the Scalar Potential Finite Element (SPFE) method. The obtained measurement and computational results were compared to the different sets of exposure limits defined by the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) in 1998 and 2010. Our results demonstrated that current RF-EAS technology, which typically operates in the 8.2 MHz frequency range, does not conflict with the exposure limits, even under adverse exposure conditions. However, AM-EAS systems, which typically operate at 58 kHz, may lead to induced current densities in the central nervous system and induced electric field strengths in the peripheral nervous systems of adults and children that exceed the basic restrictions for the general public (up to a factor of 22.5 for the adult female bending in front of the antenna) and even for occupational exposure (up to a factor of 4.5 for the same scenario) according to the ICNIRP 1998 and 2010 guidelines under reasonably foreseeable exposure conditions, which are not covered by the assessment procedures defined in the present version of the applicable standard IEC EN 62369-1. Therefore, radiation protection and market regulatory authorities should have a close look and check presently installed and future AM-EAS technology with respect to their compliance to exposure limits.
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Magnetic resonance control of spin-correlated radical pair dynamics in vivo
Burd SC, Bagheri N, Condon AF, Ingaramo M, Mondal S, Dowlatshahi DP, Summers JA, Mukherjee S, York AG, Wakatsuki S, Boxer SG, Kasevich M. Magnetic resonance control of spin-correlated radical pair dynamics in vivo. Nature. 2026 Mar 18. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10282-4.
Abstract
Magnetic fields can influence reactions involving spin-correlated radical pairs (SCRPs)1,2. This provides a mechanism by which both static and time-varying magnetic fields can affect living systems at the biomolecular level3. However, an engineered SCRP system conferring magnetic sensitivity to a non-native biochemical process in a multicellular organism has not yet been demonstrated. Here we demonstrate control of SCRP dynamics using magnetic resonance in a live transgenic animal. We show that the emission of various red fluorescent proteins (RFPs), in the presence of a flavin cofactor, can be modified by a combination of static and radiofrequency magnetic fields applied near the electron spin resonance frequency. This effect was measured at room temperature both in vitro and in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, genetically modified to express the RFP mScarlet4. These observations suggest that the magnetic field effects measured in RFP-flavin systems5 are due to quantum-correlated radical pairs with a coherence time larger than 4 ns. Our experiments demonstrate that radiofrequency magnetic fields can influence dynamics of reactions involving SCRPs in vivo, potentially enabling new methods for remotely controlling biomolecular processes, such as gene expression, and suggest broader potential for quantum tools in biology.
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Oxidative DNA damage and necrotic cell death in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells induced by continuous extremely low-frequency magnetic field exposure
Aydemi̇r M, Kurt MŞ, Daş ASB, Arslan ME, Arslan E, Türkez H. Oxidative DNA damage and necrotic cell death in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells induced by continuous extremely low-frequency magnetic field exposure. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2026 Mar 30;124:105011. doi: 10.1016/j.etap.2026.105011.
Abstract
Extremely low-frequency (ELF) magnetic fields generated by power-line sources are ubiquitous, yet their long-term effects on neuronal cells remain unclear. We investigated whether continuous exposure (72 - 96 h) to a 60 Hz ELF magnetic field induces oxidative DNA damage and alters cell death pathways in differentiated SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Neuron-like cells generated by retinoic acid and brain-derived neurotrophic factor were exposed to 1-3 mT ELF magnetic fields for 96 h, with sham-exposed cells as controls. Chromosomal integrity (Hoechst 33258 staining), apoptosis/necrosis (Annexin V-FITC/propidium iodide flow cytometry), oxidative DNA damage (apurinic/apyrimidinic site analysis), and redox balance (total oxidant and total antioxidant status) were assessed. ELF magnetic field exposure caused intensity dependent nuclear abnormalities, increased oxidative DNA lesions, early oxidative imbalance, and a predominance of necrotic over apoptotic cell death. These findings indicate that continuous low-intensity ELF magnetic field exposure disrupts redox homeostasis and compromises genomic stability in differentiated neuronal cells.
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Magnetosensation - the unsolved mystery
Magnetosensation remains one of the most intriguing mysteries in sensory biology. From bacteria to vertebrates, compelling evidence shows that organisms utilize the EMF for orientation and navigation, yet the underlying receptor mechanisms and neural circuits remain a mystery. Despite decades of work on behavior, mechanisms, and neural pathways, no unifying explanation has emerged. Central open questions include:
Progress will depend on integrating modern genetic, molecular, and neurophysiological approaches with rigorous behavioral testing. A deeper understanding of the magnetic sense will not only resolve a long-standing enigma in biology but may also inform applied fields such as magnetogenetics, environmental health, and navigation technology.
Lam BYK, Malkemper EP. Magnetosensation - the unsolved mystery. Physiol Rev. 2026 Mar 28. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00032.2025.
Abstract
Magnetosensation, or the magnetic sense, is the ability of organisms to detect the Earth's magnetic field. Behavioral evidence supporting magnetosensation emerged in the latter half of the 20th century, and it is now recognized as widespread across the animal kingdom. Yet, the mechanisms underlying this sense remain poorly understood, with three main hypotheses proposed: magnetite-based detection, radical pair reactions in photosensitive molecules, and electromagnetic induction. This review provides a concise overview of current knowledge on magnetosensation, emphasizing behavioral evidence, sensory mechanisms, and the neural processing of magnetic information. We also discuss findings on magnetosensitivity in humans, highlighting evidence that suggests humans may retain a residual unconscious magnetic sense. We argue that understanding the mystery of magnetosensation has broad implications: it can yield insight into poorly understood biological and health effects of magnetic fields, inform the emerging field of magnetogenetics for remote control of cellular activity, and guide the protection of ecosystems dependent on magnetosensitive species.
Conclusion and central open questions
Magnetosensation remains one of the most intriguing mysteries in sensory biology. From bacteria to vertebrates, compelling evidence shows that organisms utilize the EMF for orientation and navigation, yet the underlying receptor mechanisms and neural circuits remain a mystery. Despite decades of work on behavior, mechanisms, and neural pathways, no unifying explanation has emerged. Central open questions include:
1. Is cryptochrome a primary magnetic sensor?
2. Can (human) type II cryptochromes mediate magnetosensation?
2. Can (human) type II cryptochromes mediate magnetosensation?
3. What is the molecular transduction cascade between the primary effector molecule and the neuronal response?
4. What is the temporal and spatial precision of the magnetic sense?
5. Do terrestrial animals employ a mechanism based on electromagnetic induction?
6. Does a vertebrate produce biogenic magnetite?
4. What is the temporal and spatial precision of the magnetic sense?
5. Do terrestrial animals employ a mechanism based on electromagnetic induction?
6. Does a vertebrate produce biogenic magnetite?
Progress will depend on integrating modern genetic, molecular, and neurophysiological approaches with rigorous behavioral testing. A deeper understanding of the magnetic sense will not only resolve a long-standing enigma in biology but may also inform applied fields such as magnetogenetics, environmental health, and navigation technology.
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Comparison of effects of blue light, red light and radio waves on Caenorhabditis elegans and Gerbera jamesonii petals
Kline AW, Beattie CS, Shenk AK, Spicher SI, Bloss TA, Tipton L, Walker MT, Vallier LG, Schmidt KL, Scarel G. A phenomenological comparison of the effects of blue light, red light and radio waves on the escape speed of Caenorhabditis elegans and the rate of closure of Gerbera jamesonii petals. PLoS One. 2026 Apr 1;21(4):e0343498. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0343498.
Abstract
Objective: Great interest surrounds understanding the effects of radio waves on biological organisms, including humans, animals and plants. Several prior studies, however, showed contradictory results. We hypothesized that the problem lay in the lack of a method for evaluating the energy transferred from radio waves, or electromagnetic waves in general, to biological organisms. Therefore, we proposed to measure the transferred energy with the classic electromagnetic wave energy, i.e., the product of the intensity and the inverse of the frequency of the waves.
Methods: To test this hypothesis, we exposed two simple light-sensitive biological organisms, Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and Gerbera jamesonii (G. jamesonii), to radio waves, red light, blue light and white light. We selected frequency and intensity such that each type of electromagnetic wave could transfer a similar amount of energy to the biological organisms. We then observed the kinematic and postural response of C. elegans, and the rate of closure of G. jamesonii's petals to assess whether similar effects would be detected when the energy at different frequencies is similar.
Conclusions: In both C. elegans and G. jamesonii, we found that radio waves trigger effects like those generated by light with similar energy. This outcome provides support to our hypothesis. We therefore infer that electromagnetic wave intensity needs to be considered when estimating possible harm linked to the exposure of biological organisms to radio waves or, in general, electromagnetic waves. Moreover, the successful ability of radio waves in biological organisms to produce effects like those produced by blue light, together with their long penetration depth in tissues, stimulates the investigation of radio waves as a substitute for blue light in a non-invasive version of optogenetics.
Conclusions
We observed that C. elegans nematodes responded to radio waves by increasing their forward speed in a manner that resembles the response to blue light. We also observed that G. jamesonii petals close their petals at a rate slightly lower than that under solar white light and higher than that under blue and red light. We thus inferred that the classic electromagnetic wave energy given as the product between intensity and inverse of the frequency described the amount of energy transferred from electromagnetic waves to biological organisms. We showed that the classic electromagnetic wave energy established a criterion to select the wave intensity once the amount of energy to be transferred on a biological organism was specified. We noted that, in transferring the same amount of energy, radio waves required a significantly lower intensity than light. Further studies based on these results could lead to the development of radio-genetics as a non-invasive alternative to optogenetics in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological pathologies.Open access: https://journals.plos.org/
Abstract
Objective: Great interest surrounds understanding the effects of radio waves on biological organisms, including humans, animals and plants. Several prior studies, however, showed contradictory results. We hypothesized that the problem lay in the lack of a method for evaluating the energy transferred from radio waves, or electromagnetic waves in general, to biological organisms. Therefore, we proposed to measure the transferred energy with the classic electromagnetic wave energy, i.e., the product of the intensity and the inverse of the frequency of the waves.
Methods: To test this hypothesis, we exposed two simple light-sensitive biological organisms, Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and Gerbera jamesonii (G. jamesonii), to radio waves, red light, blue light and white light. We selected frequency and intensity such that each type of electromagnetic wave could transfer a similar amount of energy to the biological organisms. We then observed the kinematic and postural response of C. elegans, and the rate of closure of G. jamesonii's petals to assess whether similar effects would be detected when the energy at different frequencies is similar.
Conclusions: In both C. elegans and G. jamesonii, we found that radio waves trigger effects like those generated by light with similar energy. This outcome provides support to our hypothesis. We therefore infer that electromagnetic wave intensity needs to be considered when estimating possible harm linked to the exposure of biological organisms to radio waves or, in general, electromagnetic waves. Moreover, the successful ability of radio waves in biological organisms to produce effects like those produced by blue light, together with their long penetration depth in tissues, stimulates the investigation of radio waves as a substitute for blue light in a non-invasive version of optogenetics.
Conclusions
We observed that C. elegans nematodes responded to radio waves by increasing their forward speed in a manner that resembles the response to blue light. We also observed that G. jamesonii petals close their petals at a rate slightly lower than that under solar white light and higher than that under blue and red light. We thus inferred that the classic electromagnetic wave energy given as the product between intensity and inverse of the frequency described the amount of energy transferred from electromagnetic waves to biological organisms. We showed that the classic electromagnetic wave energy established a criterion to select the wave intensity once the amount of energy to be transferred on a biological organism was specified. We noted that, in transferring the same amount of energy, radio waves required a significantly lower intensity than light. Further studies based on these results could lead to the development of radio-genetics as a non-invasive alternative to optogenetics in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological pathologies.Open access: https://journals.plos.org/
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Orientation-dependent effects of a 1 mT static magnetic field on HT22 neural cell proliferation
Pirbhai M, Wagner N, Ferguson C, Belden C, Estevez AY. Orientation-dependent effects of a 1 mT static magnetic field on HT22 neural cell proliferation. Electromagn Biol Med. 2026 Apr 5:1-7. doi: 10.1080/15368378.2026.2652926.
Abstract
This study examines how the vertical orientation of a moderate-intensity static magnetic field (1 mT) influences the proliferation of HT22 mouse hippocampal cells. Static magnetic fields (SMFs) offer potential for biomedical applications due to their ability to influence cellular processes in a non-invasive manner. However, their effects on neural cell proliferation remain poorly understood, particularly with respect to magnetic field orientation. Cells were exposed to SMFs in two orientations: downward and upward. SMF exposure was associated with significantly higher proliferation relative to both incubator and sham controls, with the downward orientation producing the most consistent increase. This trend was observed across multiple experimental conditions, including exposure duration and antibiotic use. Ion substitution experiments further showed that replacing extracellular K+ with Cs+ attenuated the orientation-dependent response, suggesting that ion conductance may contribute to SMF sensitivity. These findings emphasize the importance of magnetic field orientation in low-intensity SMF studies and indicate that directional exposure can modulate neural cell proliferation under well-controlled conditions.
Cells are influenced not only by chemical signals, but also by physical cues in their environment. They can sense and respond to factors such as light, temperature, and even electric fields. However, whether cells can respond to a static magnetic field, a field that remains constant in strength and direction, has been less clear. In this study, we explored how hippocampal neuronal cells respond to repeated exposure to a moderate static magnetic field. We measured how these cells grew over time and examined whether the direction of the magnetic field mattered, comparing fields oriented upward versus downward. We also varied how long the cells were exposed each day and tested multiple culture conditions to ensure that any observed effects were not due to changes in nutrients. Across all conditions, we observed a consistent pattern: cells exposed to a downward-oriented magnetic field showed greater growth than cells exposed to other conditions. To better understand what might be driving this response, we altered the ionic environment surrounding the cells. Specifically, we replaced potassium with cesium, known to block certain potassium channels that help regulate how ions move across the cell membrane. When potassium conductance was disrupted in this way, the growth enhancement associated with the downward magnetic field disappeared, suggesting that potassium movement plays an important role in the cellular response. These findings may help inform future research exploring non-invasive physical cues in regenerative medicine and neural repair, which are central to wound healing, neural regeneration, and recovery after injury.
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The WHO-Commissioned Systematic Reviews on Health Effects of Microwave and RF Radiation [Health Matters]
Lin JC. The WHO-Commissioned Systematic Reviews on Health Effects of Microwave and RF Radiation [Health Matters]. IEEE Microwave Magazine, 27(3): 14-17, March 2026, doi: 10.1109/MMM.2025.3637921.
No abstract
Excerpts
The peer-reviewed assessment concluded that the body of evidence reviewed is inadequate to either support or refute the safety of the ICNIRP exposure guidelines.
The unsubtle message, in attempts to prop up the ICNIRP position that cellular mobile phone RF radiation and radiation from other wireless communication devices does not pose a health risk, can hardly be mistaken.
The
scientific credibility of the World Health Organization
(WHO)-commissioned series of systematic reviews (SRs) and meta-analyses
(MAs) on the health effects of exposure to microwave and RF radiation is
challenged by the International Commission on the Biological Effects of
Electromagnetic Fields (ICBE-EMF) in a recent Environmental Health
journal article [1]. The article concluded that the SRs and MAs on the
health effects of RF exposure cannot be used as proof of safety of
cellular mobile phones and other wireless communication devices because
of the serious methodological faults and deficiencies in conducting the
reviews and MAs. This situation places WHO in an awkward position in
partnering with the International Commission on Nonionizing Radiation
Protection (ICNIRP) in their attempts to reassure the public on the
effectiveness and safety of the ICNIRP RF exposure guidelines [26]. RF
and microwave radiation are ubiquitous in modern society. They enable
cellular mobile and wireless communication systems and devices to
transmit and receive texts, conversations, pictures, news, and
entertainment programs. RF-radiating devices and systems are found in
homes, offices, schools, playgrounds, theaters, stores, factory floors,
automobiles, public transport systems, sports arenas, stadiums,
recreational parks and facilities, and public spaces. They are located
indoors and outdoors, on persons, and practically everywhere....
The last article in the series of WHO-commissioned SRs reviewed the effects of RF exposure on cancer in experimental animals [16]. This SR was the only WHO-commissioned SR that did not include an MA; the authors deemed it inappropriate because of methodological differences among the studies, including differences in experimental parameters, exposure characteristics, and different biological models. It included all 52 reported studies with 20 chronic bioassays. The SR included all reported studies to minimize the risk of bias concerns. The certainty of the evidence for an increased risk in gliomas was judged as high. Also, in three chronic bioassays, statistically significant increases in malignant schwannomas were demonstrated as high in the heart of male rats. While this conclusion is in opposition to the interpretations of the ICNIRP, it is consistent with the findings of the National Institutes of Health National Toxicology Program [23], [24] and the Ramazzini Institute [25] and is in support of the earlier WHO [International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)] conclusion [22]. Almost immediately after the earlier batch of WHO-commissioned SRs was published, evaluations of the quality of those SRs and MAs and the relevance of their conclusions on biological effects and human safety began to appear in scientific publications [17], [18], [19], [20]. The criticisms encountered by those WHO-commissioned SRs and MAs were serious and severe, including calls for retraction....
The recent ICBE-EMF article [1] critically evaluated the 12 WHO-commissioned SRs on the health effects of RF radiation and identified significant flaws and weaknesses that undermine the SRs’ conclusions regarding RF exposure safety. The ICBE-EMF article listed many examples that illustrate the failings in the WHO SRs’ selection of publications. The extensive involvement of present and past members of the ICNIRP raises serious concerns. All of the WHO-commissioned SRs had at least one ICNIRP member as authors, and some had several members. Across multiple SRs, there are issues in the inclusion and exclusion criteria that often led to the exclusion of relevant, well-conducted studies, while flawed studies were given disproportionate weight, thereby undermining the reliability of the evidence assessments.
Simply put, MAs are inappropriate for the WHO SRs. MAs are generally intended to combine quantitative results from multiple studies to estimate overall effects, but their usefulness depends on methodological consistency, low between-study heterogeneity, sufficient statistical power, and statistical independence of the effect sizes. However, as discussed in the ICBE-EMF article, those criteria were mostly unmet in the WHO SRs on RF health effects.
Almost all of the MAs included in the 11 WHO SRs had methodological weaknesses that compromised the interpretability of results because of the relatively few primary studies available for each MA and/or high between-study heterogeneity. High levels of heterogeneity across primary studies result in MAs that are unreliable and that risk producing biased pooled results because of the excessive influence of just one or two larger studies.
There are many aspects of both SRs and MAs that, despite the use of widely recommended tools, such as the OHAT Risk of Bias scale [27] and the GRADE scheme for assessing strength of evidence [28], involve inherently subjective decisions. Such subjectivity can lead to significant variation across the reviews, even when the same primary studies are being assessed. The potential for subjectivity requires clear-cut independence of the reviews’ coauthors from all influences that might lead to bias—conditions that were clearly not met in the WHO-commissioned SRs.
In summary, the ICBE-EMF evaluation of the SRs exposes major problems with at least 10 or 11 of them. In addition to the scientific quality of the less-than-balanced reviews, they appear to be biased with a strong conviction of nothing but heat to worry about with RF and microwave radiation, in apparent support of the ICNIRP guidelines [26].
The ICBE-EMF article showed that the MAs in the SRs suffered from relatively few primary studies available for each MA (some due to excessive subgrouping), exclusion of relevant studies, weaknesses in many of the included primary studies, high between-study heterogeneity, and/or the lack of a basis for analyzing complex processes, such as those involved in cognitive functions.
Simply put, the criticisms and challenges encountered by those WHO SRs, aside from the most recent one, are serious and severe, including calls for retraction. In addition to the scientific quality of the less-than-balanced reviews, the unsubtle message, in attempts to prop up the ICNIRP position that cellular mobile phone RF radiation and radiation from other wireless communication devices does not pose a health risk, can hardly be mistaken. The systematic reviews displayed unequivocal but misguided bias for the ICNIRP RF exposure guidelines for human safety, with faulty scientific analysis and justification.
In the words according to Microwave News [29], “WHO gets a ‘Failing’ grade on RF systematic reviews: faulted for bad analysis and ICNIRP bias.”
The last article in the series of WHO-commissioned SRs reviewed the effects of RF exposure on cancer in experimental animals [16]. This SR was the only WHO-commissioned SR that did not include an MA; the authors deemed it inappropriate because of methodological differences among the studies, including differences in experimental parameters, exposure characteristics, and different biological models. It included all 52 reported studies with 20 chronic bioassays. The SR included all reported studies to minimize the risk of bias concerns. The certainty of the evidence for an increased risk in gliomas was judged as high. Also, in three chronic bioassays, statistically significant increases in malignant schwannomas were demonstrated as high in the heart of male rats. While this conclusion is in opposition to the interpretations of the ICNIRP, it is consistent with the findings of the National Institutes of Health National Toxicology Program [23], [24] and the Ramazzini Institute [25] and is in support of the earlier WHO [International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)] conclusion [22]. Almost immediately after the earlier batch of WHO-commissioned SRs was published, evaluations of the quality of those SRs and MAs and the relevance of their conclusions on biological effects and human safety began to appear in scientific publications [17], [18], [19], [20]. The criticisms encountered by those WHO-commissioned SRs and MAs were serious and severe, including calls for retraction....
The recent ICBE-EMF article [1] critically evaluated the 12 WHO-commissioned SRs on the health effects of RF radiation and identified significant flaws and weaknesses that undermine the SRs’ conclusions regarding RF exposure safety. The ICBE-EMF article listed many examples that illustrate the failings in the WHO SRs’ selection of publications. The extensive involvement of present and past members of the ICNIRP raises serious concerns. All of the WHO-commissioned SRs had at least one ICNIRP member as authors, and some had several members. Across multiple SRs, there are issues in the inclusion and exclusion criteria that often led to the exclusion of relevant, well-conducted studies, while flawed studies were given disproportionate weight, thereby undermining the reliability of the evidence assessments.
Simply put, MAs are inappropriate for the WHO SRs. MAs are generally intended to combine quantitative results from multiple studies to estimate overall effects, but their usefulness depends on methodological consistency, low between-study heterogeneity, sufficient statistical power, and statistical independence of the effect sizes. However, as discussed in the ICBE-EMF article, those criteria were mostly unmet in the WHO SRs on RF health effects.
Almost all of the MAs included in the 11 WHO SRs had methodological weaknesses that compromised the interpretability of results because of the relatively few primary studies available for each MA and/or high between-study heterogeneity. High levels of heterogeneity across primary studies result in MAs that are unreliable and that risk producing biased pooled results because of the excessive influence of just one or two larger studies.
There are many aspects of both SRs and MAs that, despite the use of widely recommended tools, such as the OHAT Risk of Bias scale [27] and the GRADE scheme for assessing strength of evidence [28], involve inherently subjective decisions. Such subjectivity can lead to significant variation across the reviews, even when the same primary studies are being assessed. The potential for subjectivity requires clear-cut independence of the reviews’ coauthors from all influences that might lead to bias—conditions that were clearly not met in the WHO-commissioned SRs.
In summary, the ICBE-EMF evaluation of the SRs exposes major problems with at least 10 or 11 of them. In addition to the scientific quality of the less-than-balanced reviews, they appear to be biased with a strong conviction of nothing but heat to worry about with RF and microwave radiation, in apparent support of the ICNIRP guidelines [26].
The ICBE-EMF article showed that the MAs in the SRs suffered from relatively few primary studies available for each MA (some due to excessive subgrouping), exclusion of relevant studies, weaknesses in many of the included primary studies, high between-study heterogeneity, and/or the lack of a basis for analyzing complex processes, such as those involved in cognitive functions.
Simply put, the criticisms and challenges encountered by those WHO SRs, aside from the most recent one, are serious and severe, including calls for retraction. In addition to the scientific quality of the less-than-balanced reviews, the unsubtle message, in attempts to prop up the ICNIRP position that cellular mobile phone RF radiation and radiation from other wireless communication devices does not pose a health risk, can hardly be mistaken. The systematic reviews displayed unequivocal but misguided bias for the ICNIRP RF exposure guidelines for human safety, with faulty scientific analysis and justification.
In the words according to Microwave News [29], “WHO gets a ‘Failing’ grade on RF systematic reviews: faulted for bad analysis and ICNIRP bias.”
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The need to rethink the everyday electromagnetic environment
Isaac A. Jamieson. Chapter 10 - The need to rethink the everyday electromagnetic environment. (Ed.) Jan Martel. Recent Advances in Bioelectromagnetism and Subtle Energies. Academic Press. 2026. Pages 335-368. doi: 10.1016/B978-
Abstract
The potential biological effects of everyday electromagnetic environments, and the electromagnetic pollution that can often be present within them, present a critical yet dramatically under-considered risk factor in public health, technological innovation, and everyday life. Even low-intensity EMF exposures, below current regulatory limits, can have biological effects. While cancer and electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) receive the most attention with regard to these, a broader range of health issues that substantially contribute to economic burdens has also been linked with EMF exposures. It is proposed that individuals, businesses and industries can substantially benefit from proactively addressing EMF risks. Encouragingly, not all EMF exposures are harmful. This provides opportunities to optimize electromagnetic environments and technologies to better support health, wellness and productivity. Bioelectromagnetic design, in particular, offers the potential for innovation, creating environments that are safer, more inclusive, and aligned with emerging guidelines that prioritize health and well-being. By applying the precautionary principle and embracing proactive biologically informed innovation, industries can better future-proof their operations and play a meaningful role in shaping healthier, more sustainable everyday environments.
Conclusion
A huge opportunity exists to rethink the everyday electromagnetic environments and technologies most people are exposed to and create more bio-friendly versions of them. Doing so can help reduce risk, drive innovation, and grow the wellness economy. This is especially true for wellness real estate, the fastest-growing sector of the global wellness industry.
With regard to EMF exposure standards and guidelines, even relatively low intensity exposures below permitted exposure levels can have biological effects. While the greatest degree of publicity related to exposures is given to cancer risk and EHS being associated with environmental exposures, numerous other health conditions are indicated as being negatively affected and create high levels of financial burden. Such evidence provides strong reason to create healthier electromagnetic environments and technologies.
Another reason for addressing such issues is that many regulations and guidelines related to EMF exposures are getting stricter, so proactively addressing this trend can help future-proof industries. This type of approach can further open-up opportunities for innovation for those observing market trends and who seek to create “multiple layers of benefit” solutions.
The insurance industry’s perspective on EMF risks provides further evidence of why developing solutions is of paramount importance. The need to effectively address this issue is further highlighted from the documentation of the wide range of health effects associated with EMF exposures, and the costs that these can create to national economies.
Those findings provide strong evidence for the need to apply the precautionary principle with regard to electromagnetic pollution and the need to see how such issues can be better addressed. In particular, it is suggested that proactive precautionary approaches can be adopted by members of the wireless and tech industries enabling them to reframe themselves as future-compliant and future-oriented, which will increase their attractiveness to investors and help them make greater inroads into the global wellness economy through creating more bioelectromagnetically friendly technologies. The health industry also stands to be able to expand its mission through helping develop more bioelectromagnetically friendly environments.
Such approaches will allow EHS accessibility requirements, which a growing body of authorities are taking ever more seriously, to be more easily addressed while creating extra value and reducing risk to other members of society who may also be negatively affected by electromagnetic pollution.
Calls for more bio-friendly environmental exposures are likely to increase as consumer education on these issues increases. The trend for building certification initiatives that reward proactive measures that positively impact health and wellbeing is in line with this and can already be coupled with existing initiatives to improve environmental conditions and incorporate new innovations as they arise through multidisciplinary interventions.
Fortuitously, not all exposures to electromagnetic phenomena are harmful, and some types of artificially created EMF exposures (when used correctly) benefit both health and productivity. There are, in addition, technological breakthroughs that allow increased technical efficiency while reducing exposures to electromagnetic pollution. This is particularly heartening and suggests that in addition to the low EMF tactic often advocated to address electromagnetic pollution issues a more proactive approach can be taken to help biologically optimize the bioelectromagnetic characteristics of environments, sometimes beyond what nature itself can even achieve. Bioelectromagnetic design can drive innovation, reduce risk, and take the design and operation of technologies and environments to a whole new level, creating potential “Win/Win” solutions for all stakeholders that are kind to people, planet, and profit.
A huge opportunity exists to rethink the everyday electromagnetic environments and technologies most people are exposed to and create more bio-friendly versions of them. Doing so can help reduce risk, drive innovation, and grow the wellness economy. This is especially true for wellness real estate, the fastest-growing sector of the global wellness industry.
With regard to EMF exposure standards and guidelines, even relatively low intensity exposures below permitted exposure levels can have biological effects. While the greatest degree of publicity related to exposures is given to cancer risk and EHS being associated with environmental exposures, numerous other health conditions are indicated as being negatively affected and create high levels of financial burden. Such evidence provides strong reason to create healthier electromagnetic environments and technologies.
Another reason for addressing such issues is that many regulations and guidelines related to EMF exposures are getting stricter, so proactively addressing this trend can help future-proof industries. This type of approach can further open-up opportunities for innovation for those observing market trends and who seek to create “multiple layers of benefit” solutions.
The insurance industry’s perspective on EMF risks provides further evidence of why developing solutions is of paramount importance. The need to effectively address this issue is further highlighted from the documentation of the wide range of health effects associated with EMF exposures, and the costs that these can create to national economies.
Those findings provide strong evidence for the need to apply the precautionary principle with regard to electromagnetic pollution and the need to see how such issues can be better addressed. In particular, it is suggested that proactive precautionary approaches can be adopted by members of the wireless and tech industries enabling them to reframe themselves as future-compliant and future-oriented, which will increase their attractiveness to investors and help them make greater inroads into the global wellness economy through creating more bioelectromagnetically friendly technologies. The health industry also stands to be able to expand its mission through helping develop more bioelectromagnetically friendly environments.
Such approaches will allow EHS accessibility requirements, which a growing body of authorities are taking ever more seriously, to be more easily addressed while creating extra value and reducing risk to other members of society who may also be negatively affected by electromagnetic pollution.
Calls for more bio-friendly environmental exposures are likely to increase as consumer education on these issues increases. The trend for building certification initiatives that reward proactive measures that positively impact health and wellbeing is in line with this and can already be coupled with existing initiatives to improve environmental conditions and incorporate new innovations as they arise through multidisciplinary interventions.
Fortuitously, not all exposures to electromagnetic phenomena are harmful, and some types of artificially created EMF exposures (when used correctly) benefit both health and productivity. There are, in addition, technological breakthroughs that allow increased technical efficiency while reducing exposures to electromagnetic pollution. This is particularly heartening and suggests that in addition to the low EMF tactic often advocated to address electromagnetic pollution issues a more proactive approach can be taken to help biologically optimize the bioelectromagnetic characteristics of environments, sometimes beyond what nature itself can even achieve. Bioelectromagnetic design can drive innovation, reduce risk, and take the design and operation of technologies and environments to a whole new level, creating potential “Win/Win” solutions for all stakeholders that are kind to people, planet, and profit.