Electromagnetic Radiation Safety

I have been circulating abstracts of newly-published scientific papers on radio frequency and other non-ionizing electromagnetic fields (EMF) monthly since 2016. The complete collection contains more than 2500 abstracts with links to these papers. Several hundred EMF scientists around the world receive these updates.

To download Volume 3 which contains abstracts of papers published since 2024

(including the new papers listed below) click on the following link (721 page pdf):

https://bit.ly/EMFstudies-2024-Aug-2026

To download Volume 2 which contains abstracts of papers published from 2021 through 2023

click on the following link (867 page pdf):

https://bit.ly/EMFStudies-2021-2023

To download Volume 1 which contains abstracts of papers published from 2016 through 2020

click on the following link (875 page pdf):

https://bit.ly/EMFStudies-2016-2020

The abstracts for recently published papers appear below.

Conflicting views in experimental carcinogenesis: a commentary on design and methodological deficiencies in the follow-up validation studies on radiofrequency radiation

Melnick RL, Moskowitz JM, Héroux P on behalf of International Commission on the Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields. Conflicting views in experimental carcinogenesis: a commentary on design and methodological deficiencies in the follow-up validation studies on radiofrequency radiation. Environ Health 25, 66 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-026-01324-5.

Abstract

Conflicting views in experimental carcinogenesis often arise due to differences in study design among reported studies. For carcinogenicity assessments, regulatory agencies, such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and intergovernmental advisory organizations, such as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), specify the use of at least three dose levels plus control group for trend analyses, with the highest dose inducing a measurable toxic response. In addition, there needs to be a sufficient number of animals per group to have adequate power to detect a true carcinogenic effect. Departure from such recommendations can weaken the interpretations of study results. We examine here two recent carcinogenicity studies from Japan and Korea that were conducted following the positive carcinogenicity study of radiofrequency radiation (RFR) in experimental animals by the National Toxicology Program (NTP). The Japan and Korea follow-up studies used fewer animals per group, a single RFR exposure group, and a lower exposure level than the NTP study. Not surprisingly, while the NTP study revealed the carcinogenicity of RFR, the Japanese and Korean studies, which had reduced statistical power compared to the NTP study, issued conclusions conflicting with those of the more substantial NTP study on the health effects of RFR. In general, carcinogenicity studies with weaker doses, fewer exposure groups, and reduced statistical power should not be used to test the validity of more robust studies.

Excerpt

Despite the numerous limitations in their study design, the authors of the Japan-Korea studies concluded there is “no reproducible carcinogenic potential of mobile phone-type RF exposure in rats,” and that alternatives to the ICNIRP “recommend[ed] exposure limits for RF radiation based on thermal effects” are inconclusive [3]. These statements reflect ideological support for ICNIRP’s thermal-only mechanism of adverse effects and its repeated dismissal of the validity of the NTP carcinogenicity studies (e.g [12]). The project’s principal investigator is a member of ICNIRP, and the advisory committee that provided oversight and guidance throughout this project was heavily represented by current and past members of ICNIRP, suggesting a strong influence of ICNIRP in the design and interpretation of these studies.

In conclusion, methodological shortcomings due to the design choices in the Japan–Korea studies, specifically the restriction to a single exposure group of 4 W/kg of CDMA-modulated RFR and reduced statistical power, systematically biased the study toward null results and eliminated the possibility of detecting a positive trend. Consequently, these findings cannot be used to reasonably refute the peer-reviewed evidence of toxicity and carcinogenicity of CDMA- and GSM-modulated RFR in the NTP studies, nor to reinforce ICNIRP’s thermal-based exposure limits. It is also important to note that the increases in schwannomas and gliomas reported in experimental studies of RF-EMF are of the same tumor types (glioma and vestibular schwannoma) that were increased in epidemiological studies in which brain cancer risk was increased among heavy users of mobile phones [13]. The example described in this commentary demonstrates how limited and divergent experimental designs and potential biases in the interpretation of experimental carcinogenicity results can lead to conflicting views on the health effects of RFR.

Open access: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12940-026-01324-5

Environmental and auto-induced RF-EMF adult and children far-field exposure simulations between 450 MHz and 26 GHz

Wydaeghe R, Stroobandt B, Gallucci S, Parazzini M, Tognola G, Wiart J, Vermeeren G, Guxens M, Tanghe E, Joseph W. Environmental and auto-induced RF-EMF adult and children far-field exposure simulations between 450 MHz and 26 GHz. Phys Med Biol. 2026 Aug 10. doi: 10.1088/1361-6560/ae97ac.

Abstract

Objective: Children's exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) above 6 GHz lacks characterization. No study spans sub-GHz cellular bands to millimeter wave while including child phantoms. This study quantifies the specific absorption rate (SAR) and absorbed power density (APD) in two adult and two child anatomical phantoms across 15 frequencies from 450 MHz to 26 GHz.

Approach: We performed 550 finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations covering environmental (plane-wave) and auto-induced (beamforming) exposure. SAR and APD were computed following IEC/IEEE 62704-1 and IEC/IEEE 63195-4, respectively. The simulations included, for the first time, whole-body dosimetry at 26 GHz in child and adult phantoms, and child APD across 7-15 GHz. Results were normalized to the ICNIRP 2020 reference levels for general public exposure.

Main results: Children show 1.5-1.9 times higher whole-body SAR than adults at all sub-6 GHz frequencies. A 6-year-old reaches 93% of the 80 mW/kg whole-body SAR limit at 2140 MHz, averaged over 12 plane-wave configurations, and 145% in the worst one. Whole-body SAR, not local SAR, determines compliance margins below 6 GHz. Brain SAR decreases by 96% from 450 MHz to 5.8 GHz as absorption shifts to the skin. Eye SAR drops 77-fold from 7 to 26 GHz as penetration depth falls below eyelid thickness. Under simplified MRT beamforming, psSAR10g at 3500 MHz exceeds the 2 W/kg head/torso limit for all four phantoms (131-158%). APD at 7 GHz exceeds 20 W/m^2 for a 6-year-old by 2.5%. Worst-case whole-body SAR agrees with the literature within 2%.

Significance: The results identify frequency-phantom combinations where compliance margins narrow: 3500 MHz and 7 GHz under beamforming, and children near 2 GHz under environmental exposure. The organ-specific SAR data for brain, eyes, skin, and genitals support epidemiological exposure assessment and dose modeling across current and prospective wireless bands.

Keywords: 6G; FDTD; RF-EMF exposure; absorbed power density (APD); beamforming; child dosimetry; specific absorption rate (SAR).

Open access: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6560/ae97ac

Neuromodulation in Neuro-Oncology: A Scoping Review

Kamaludin AI, Kumaria A, Ashkan K. Neuromodulation in Neuro-Oncology: A Scoping Review. J Pers Med. 2026 Jun 28;16(7):349. doi: 10.3390/jpm16070349.

Abstract

Background: Neuromodulation is a rapidly developing field with growing interest in its application in neuro-oncology, particularly since the publication of the EF-14 trial which demonstrated a survival benefit conferred by tumour treating fields (TTF) in patients with glioblastoma. In addition, the emerging field of cancer neuroscience has postulated the role of neural-tumour communication in tumour aetiology, which is theoretically targetable by neuromodulation strategies. This scoping review therefore aims to comprehensively evaluate current or future applications of neuromodulation in managing patients with brain tumours, encompassing preclinical and clinical studies.

Methods: The MEDLINE database was queried for all relevant articles from inception to 1 December 2024. A synthesis of findings was performed, broadly categorised to preclinical and clinical research.

Findings: The database search returned 3296 results, from which 187 full-text articles were further assessed. A total of 79 studies met the inclusion and exclusion criteria and were included. The results from preclinical studies (n = 18) were stratified according to modality which included electrical therapy, electroporation, electromagnetic field (EMF) and deep brain stimulation (DBS). Similarly, clinical studies (n = 61) were classified to preoperative modalities such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct stimulation (tDCS), and postoperative modalities such as TMS, TTF, EMF and spinal cord stimulation (SCS).

Interpretation: The application of neuromodulation as adjunctive therapy in the context of neuro-oncology is an emerging field, with encouraging results in various modalities across a wide range of applications from surgical planning and functional rehabilitation, to its therapeutic potential. Further research is urgently needed to harness the potential of neuromodulation in improving patient outcomes.

Open access: https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4426/16/7/349

A Survey and Tutorial on 5G Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Measurement

Li K, Popoola O, Sambo Y. A Survey and Tutorial on 5G Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Measurement. Telecom. 2026; 7(4):91. doi: 10.3390/telecom7040091.

Abstract

5G electromagnetic field (EMF) measurement is more challenging than measurement in previous cellular generations because 5G New Radio uses time-division duplexing, flexible bandwidths, beam sweeping, massive MIMO, and user-specific traffic beams. As a result, the measured synchronisation signal block (SSB) or PBCH-DMRS level may not directly represent the maximum exposure produced by data transmission. This motivates a combined tutorial and structured survey of existing 5G EMF measurement studies and procedures. This paper reviews the literature on 5G EMF measurement by classifying existing methods into frequency-selective measurement, code-selective measurement, actual exposure assessment, maximum-exposure extrapolation, and network-counter-based assessment. Representative field studies, public measurement reports, and network-data-based studies are compared according to their measurement scenarios, exposure objectives, and limitations. The paper further discusses key uncertainty sources, including beam/gain offset, TDD duty cycle, bandwidth extrapolation, traffic variation, spatial sampling, and equipment-related uncertainty. Finally, open challenges related to FR2 millimetre-wave measurements and reconfigurable propagation environments are discussed. By combining tutorial background with a structured survey, this paper clarifies 5G EMF measurement procedures, maximum-exposure extrapolation, uncertainty sources, and FR2 millimetre-wave measurement challenges.

Conclusions

This paper has reviewed 5G EMF measurement from both a tutorial and survey perspective. First, the paper summarised the regulatory quantities and 5G technical features that are most relevant to exposure assessment, including SSB transmission, PBCH-DMRS, TDD operation, beamforming, massive MIMO, and the distinction between FR1 and FR2 deployments. These features explain why measurement procedures developed for previous cellular generations cannot be directly applied to 5G without additional consideration of reference signals, beam direction, traffic load, and extrapolation factors.

The paper then classified 5G EMF measurement methods into frequency-selective measurement, code-selective measurement, actual exposure assessment, maximum-exposure extrapolation, and network-counter-based assessment. This taxonomy clarifies that different methods answer different exposure questions. Frequency-selective and current-exposure measurements are useful for characterising field levels under actual network operation, while code-selective and reference-signal-based methods are necessary when the aim is to estimate maximum exposure. Network-counter-based approaches provide additional information about temporal variability and realistic network loading, but they usually require operator-side data.

The comparative review shows that existing 5G EMF studies differ substantially in their measurement objectives, scenarios, and assumptions. Public field-measurement reports and recent measurement campaigns generally report exposure levels below the relevant international limits in the investigated scenarios, but these results should not be interpreted without considering measurement duration, traffic condition, spatial sampling, and whether the study reports actual exposure or extrapolated maximum exposure [25,76,77]. Therefore, comparing 5G EMF studies requires more than comparing reported field levels; it also requires comparing the measurement method and the exposure quantity being assessed.

A key conclusion of this survey is that uncertainty analysis is central to 5G EMF measurement. The main uncertainty sources include beam/gain offset between SSB and data beams, TDD downlink duty cycle, full-bandwidth extrapolation, traffic-load variation, spatial sampling, equipment response, and access to operator-specific configuration data. These uncertainties are particularly important for maximum-exposure extrapolation, where the measured SSB or PBCH-DMRS level must be scaled to represent conservative transmission conditions. Transparent reporting of measurement settings, detected reference signals, averaging time, traffic condition, and extrapolation assumptions is therefore essential for reproducible and comparable 5G exposure assessment.

Finally, the paper identified several open challenges for future work. FR2 and millimetre-wave deployments introduce additional difficulties because of narrow beams, stronger spatial variability, blockage sensitivity, and the need for power-density-based assessment. Future beyond-5G technologies, such as RIS-assisted propagation environments, may further complicate exposure assessment because the propagation environment itself can become dynamically reconfigurable. Future research should therefore focus on standardised uncertainty reporting, operator-independent measurement procedures, long-term monitoring, FR2-specific measurement methods, and exposure-assessment frameworks that remain valid as 5G networks evolve toward more dynamic and reconfigurable architectures.

Open access: https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4001/7/4/91

Temporal 2G-5G RF-EMF exposure assessment in ten European countries during one year

Van Bladel H, Veludo AF, Loizeau N, Röösli M, Maule M, Vecsei Z, Molnár O, Vrijkotte T, Polanska K, Politański P, Mamrot P, Wang S, Wiart J, Grellier J, Kovalenko A, Hulls PM, De Vocht F, Vaupotiĉ N, Guxens M, Joseph W. Temporal 2G-5G RF-EMF exposure assessment in ten European countries during one year. Sci Total Environ. 2026 Jul 14;1047:182037. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2026.182037.

Abstract

Due to the rapid evolution and densification of mobile communication networks, there is an increased interest in the long-term assessment of environmental exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). While numerous studies have investigated RF-EMF exposure using short-term or spatial measurement campaigns, the number of comprehensive analyses capturing temporal variability across multiple frequency bands and countries remain limited. This pilot study aims to establish a multi-country sensor network to collect data on long-term RF-EMF exposure, including 5G, and to investigate whether temporal trends occur. Twenty frequency-selective sensors were deployed at fixed indoor and outdoor locations in ten European countries, continuously measuring E-field (electric field) strengths in four mobile communication frequency bands (806 MHz, 942 MHz, 1842 MHz, and 3625 MHz) over a period of 17 months with a temporal resolution of 1 s. The raw measurement data were calibrated and analyzed to describe RF-EMF exposure levels, temporal patterns, and variability across environments and spatial characteristics. A strong and recurring diurnal pattern was observed across the four frequency bands. The highest day-night contrasts occurred in the 806 MHz and 1842 MHz bands, where nighttime values decreased by 35.1% and 48.4%, respectively compared to daytime values. Milder contrasts were observed between weekdays and weekends with the most pronounced decrease of 16.6% for the 1842 MHz band. Temporal variability, quantified using the R-factor (i.e. the ratio of the median field strength to the maximum field strength measured during the period of interest), varied substantially across frequency bands and locations, with lower R-factors observed for higher-frequency bands (with a median R-factor of 0.45 for 3625 GHz), indicating a greater variability. Given the scope and duration of this study, it aims to serve as a pilot study for long-term exposure monitoring at fixed sites in multiple countries.

Highlights

• RF-EMF exposure was monitored for one year in ten European countries.
• Twenty fixed sensors measured four mobile communication frequency bands.
• Clear daily exposure patterns were observed across all frequency bands.
• Weekly exposure patterns were present but weaker than daily patterns.
• Higher-frequency bands showed stronger temporal variability.

Conclusion

This study presents a long-term assessment of RF-EMF exposure across fixed sites in ten European countries using frequency-selective, fixed monitoring sensors, during one year. This work provides new insights into the temporal variability and environmental influence of RF-EMF exposure in contemporary mobile communication networks. A very large dataset was obtained by collecting E-fields every second for one year, four frequencies and 20 measurement locations. The lessons learned in this long-term multi country pilot study form a starting point for future large scale RF-EMF exposure assessment studies.

Temporal analyses revealed clear and recurring daily and weekly exposure patterns, especially for 806 MHz and 1842 MHz bands. Weekday–weekend differences and diurnal modulation were observed after normalization, demonstrating that RF-EMF exposure is closely linked to human activity patterns and network traffic dynamics. No pronounced conclusions were observed between sensor locations due to limited data points.

Overall, the results demonstrate that long-term, frequency-selective monitoring is essential for capturing the dynamic nature of RF-EMF exposure. The findings support the use of fixed sensor networks as a valuable tool for environmental exposure assessment and future epidemiological research, particularly in the context of ongoing network densification and the continued evolution of mobile communication technologies.

Future work entails the development of a new version of the frequency-selective sensor, with a modular design. With this upgraded version, the frequencies of interest can be expanded by choosing sensor units and connecting them to a global data processing main board. In that way, more than 4 frequency bands can be measured and thus providing a more complete and realistic assessment of RF-EMF exposure per country. For studies, focused on absolute exposure values rather than temporal trends, triaxial sensors can be implemented by connecting three orthogonal polarized antennas in this modular design. Another future research option is conducting an exposure assessment study of a larger scale, with a more dense sensor network to achieve more datapoints per environment, combining significant spatial comparisons with the temporal analysis.

Open access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969726007023

Maternal Mobile Phone Use During Pregnancy versus Early Childhood in Relation to Behavioral Problems in Preschool-Aged Children: A Prospective Cohort Study

Joo H, Choi J, Lim H, Choi HD, Lee AK, Moon J, Ha M. Maternal Mobile Phone Use During Pregnancy versus Early Childhood in Relation to Behavioral Problems in Preschool-Aged Children: A Prospective Cohort Study. Environ Res. 2026 Jul 25:125314. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2026.125314.

Abstract

Evidence on the effect of maternal mobile phone use on child behavioral development remains inconsistent, particularly regarding the relative importance of the prenatal and early childhood exposure periods. We aimed to examine associations between maternal mobile phone call duration during pregnancy and early childhood and behavioral problems in preschool-aged children. We analyzed data from the Mothers and Children's Environmental Health (MOCEH) prospective birth cohort. Maternal mobile phone use was measured by questionnaire during pregnancy and at ages 3-5 years, and child behavioral problems were assessed using the Korean Child Behavior Checklist (K-CBCL) at ages 4, 5, and 6 years. Maternal daily call duration (minutes/day), used as a proxy indicator of mobile phone use, was calculated from daily call frequency and average duration per call. Associations with behavioral problem scores were estimated using linear mixed-effects models in sub-cohorts with available exposure information for the whole period (n = 780), pregnancy (n = 763), and early childhood (n = 418). Mutually adjusted models accounted for maternal mobile phone use during the other exposure period, with missing information treated as a separate category. Early childhood maternal mobile phone use was significantly associated with higher total (β = 1.37, 95% CI: 0.46-2.28) and externalizing (β = 1.44, 0.54-2.33) problem scores, whereas prenatal use was not. Sex-stratified analyses showed associations for total and externalizing problems in males and internalizing problems in females. These findings suggest that maternal mobile phone use during early childhood, rather than pregnancy, is associated with child behavioral problems, pointing to the caregiving pathways, such as interruptions in parent-child interaction caused by technology use, as a plausible explanation.

Highlights

• Maternal mobile phone use in early childhood was linked to child behavior problems
• Prenatal maternal mobile phone use showed no clear associations with child behavior problems
• Significant increases in externalizing for males and internalizing problems for females
• A role of early caregiving environment in child neurobehavioral development suggested

Excerpt

We focused on maternal voice-call duration because smartphones were not widely used in Korea during the main data collection period, when mobile-phone use was still largely call-oriented; smartphone use in Korea was very low before 2010 and increased to approximately 14% in 2010 (Korea Communication Commission [KCC], 2011). Voice calls are also a relevant proxy for near-field RF-EMF exposure because the handset is typically held close to the head, although actual output power varies by network conditions and adaptive power control rather than remaining at the regulatory SAR limit (Vrijheid et al., 2009). Non-call functions, including internet browsing, video viewing, texting, and gaming, were not assessed, which may have led to underestimation of maternal mobile-phone use during the child’s early-life follow-up period as smartphone-based activities rapidly increased. If this exposure misclassification was largely non-differential, the observed association for childhood exposure may be conservative. However, non-call use may also reflect different mechanisms, including caregiving distraction, family context, and RF-EMF exposure, and we cannot determine whether its inclusion would necessarily have yielded larger effect estimates.

Mobile phone use by fathers and other household members may contribute to children’s environmental RF-EMF exposure, which was not considered in the present study....

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42501935/

Numerical analysis of the effect of 5G electromagnetic radiation on human head with metallic implants

Bhargava D, Rattanadecho P. Numerical analysis of the effect of 5G electromagnetic radiation on human head with metallic implants. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress. Volume 76, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104814.

Abstract

With the advent of 5G communication technologies, concerns regarding electromagnetic (EM) radiation exposure, particularly in individuals with metallic implants, have gained significant attention. This study investigates the interaction of 5G EM radiation with a two-dimensional (2D) heterogeneous human head model comprising six layers: skin, fat, bone, dura, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and brain. The model is exposed to 5G frequencies (2.6, 3.6, 4.4, and 6 GHz) at a power level of 1 W, both in the absence and presence of stainless steel 410 implants (pin- and sphere-shaped) embedded within the bone layer. A coupled model of EM wave propagation and bio-heat transfer is solved in COMSOL Multiphysics 6.1 based on Finite Element Method (FEM). The results indicate that the presence of metallic implants increases the electric field intensity, Specific Absorption Rate (SAR), and temperature within the tissues. The skin layer consistently demonstrates the highest absorption of electric field due to its proximity to the EM source and higher dielectric properties. Additionally, the absorption pattern across the different head layers is influenced by the dielectric and thermal characteristics of individual tissues. Metallic implants significantly alter the spatial distribution of hotspots in head, resulting in enhanced energy localization and deeper penetration in surrounding tissues. In several cases, SAR values exceed the safety limit (2 W/kg) recommended by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Although the temperature rise remains within safe thresholds, prolonged or repeated exposure could pose thermal risks. These findings underscore the need to consider implant presence in EM safety assessments for 5G environments.

Highlights

• Numerical modeling of 5G EM radiation interaction with heterogeneous 2D human head model including six biological tissue layers.
• Impact of stainless steel 410 implants (pin and sphere) on electric field, SAR, and thermal behavior is studied.
• Peak electric field (78.78 V/m), SAR (6.42 W/kg), and temperature (37.138 °C) occurred at 3.6 GHz with pin implant.
• Metallic implants shift the hot spot region and cause deeper penetration of EM energy in the head tissues.
• Thermal rise stays within safety limits, but prolonged exposure in implant-bearing individuals may raise.

Conclusion

This study investigated the effects of metallic implants on EM wave absorption in a 2D heterogeneous human head model exposed to 5G frequencies (2.6, 3.6, 4.4, and 6 GHz). The impact of implant geometry was analysed by embedding stainless steel 410 implants in two shapes, pin and sphere, within the bone layer. Among all the considered frequencies, 3.6 GHz resulted in the highest EM absorption in the head tissues. The findings reveal that the presence of metallic implants significantly increases the electric field intensity, SAR, and temperature compared to the no-implant case. Maximum electric field (78.78 V/m), SAR (6.42 W/kg), and temperature (37.138 °C) were observed at 3.6 GHz for the pin implant. The skin layer consistently exhibited the highest EM absorption due to its proximity to the radiation source and relatively high dielectric properties. Additionally, EM energy absorption across different tissues varied based on their dielectric and thermal characteristics. The SAR values exceeded the ICNIRP safety limit of 2 W/kg in all scenarios except at 6 GHz without an implant. Although, the observed temperature rise remained within the general thermal safety threshold, the presence of metallic implants led to localized heating and shifted hotspot regions, indicating a redistribution of thermal energy. The coupled multiphysics 2D heterogeneous head model provides significant computational time savings for different 5G frequencies and implant geometries, while maintaining good agreement with the literature.

Open access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2451904926003409

Response to the BfS Statement: Scientific Clarifications on Chromosomal Damage and RF-EMF Exposure

Belyaev I, Gulati S, Mosgoeller W, Moldan D. Response to the BfS Statement: Scientific Clarifications on Chromosomal Damage and RF-EMF Exposure. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 322, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2026.120336.

No abstract

Open access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651326006652

Occupational electromagnetic field exposure and sleep disturbances: The predominant role of high-frequency electric fields

Soumillion M, Remy VFM, Petrovic D, Dil JH, Guseva Canu I. Occupational electromagnetic field exposure and sleep disturbances: The predominant role of high-frequency electric fields. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2026 Aug 11;277:114886. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2026.114886.

Abstract

Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) are ubiquitous and include low-frequency magnetic fields (LF-MF) from alternating currents, low-frequency electric fields (LF-EF) from wiring and equipment, and high-frequency electric fields (HF-EF) from wireless technologies and broadcast antennas. Bus drivers are exposed to an EMF mixture and report higher rates of sleep disorders than the general population. This study aimed to examine associations between sleep disturbances and cumulative occupational EMF exposure over 12 months, considering individual components and the mixture. EMF exposure estimates from the Swiss bus-exposure matrix were matched to the occupational history of 351 TRAPHEAC study bus drivers. Sleep quality, insomnia, and excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) were assessed using the Global Sleep Assessment Questionnaire. Associations with cumulative EMF exposure were evaluated using multivariable linear regression controlled for age, sex, occupational noise, and nightshift work, and heat exposure. Mixture effects were analyzed with Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR), and the influence of non-occupational EMF exposure was examined via stratification. Multivariable linear regression showed positive associations of HF-EF, but not LF-EF or LF-MF, with insomnia and EDS, although models explained little variance. BKMR confirmed the predominance of HF-EF in the mixture effect, with a positive but statistically non-significant dose-response for the EMF mixture. Stratified analyses suggested stronger associations among drivers with low non-occupational EMF exposure. These findings suggest a dose-response relationship between occupational EMF mixture exposure and sleep disturbances, primarily driven by HF-EF. However, the overall variance explained by EMF exposure is small, highlighting the role of other risk factors in sleep disturbances among bus drivers.

Highlights:

• Occupational joint EMF exposure linked to poorer sleep in bus drivers
• High-frequency electric field dominated in the joint exposure effect
• Significant dose-response relationship in linear regression but not in BKMR
• Dose-response results robust to sex, age, noise, nightshift-work, and heat effects
• Stronger associations in drivers with low non-occupational exposure

Conclusion

In conclusion, using a dual methodological approach combining linear regression and Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression, this study nested within the TRAPHEAC cohort of Swiss bus drivers showed that occupational HF-EF exposure is positively associated with poorer sleep outcomes, including global sleep quality, insomnia, and excessive daytime sleepiness. These associations were consistently observed both for HF-EF specifically and for the combined mixture of HF-EF, LF-EF, and LF-MF exposures, and remained robust to adjustment for sex, age, intensity of nightshift work, and occupational noise exposure as well as to the exclusion of participants exposed to high ambient temperature. However, the BKMR dose-response trends were not statistically significant. Stronger exposure–response gradients in individuals with low residential EMF exposure highlight the modifying effect of non-occupational sources, whereas attenuation in highly exposed individuals suggests a saturation or masking phenomenon, emphasizing the importance of considering both cumulative and mixed-source EMF exposures in occupational sleep health assessments. As the study sample was small and several individual-level factors that may affect sleep quality were unavailable for assessing their influence on the observed associations, future research is warranted to confirm these findings and address these limitations.

Open access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S143846392600146X?via%3Dihub

Comment on Petzke et al. (2026) re: Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity

Cinciripini G. Comment on Petzke et al. (2026): International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 273 (2026) 114764. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2026 Jul;276:114801. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2026.114801.

No abstract

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42236410/

Research Progress on High-Frequency Electromagnetic Environments in the Internet of Vehicles

Li J, Lu M, Wang S. Research Progress on High-Frequency Electromagnetic Environments in the Internet of Vehicles. Electronics. 2026; 15(15):3418. doi: 10.3390/electronics15153418.

Abstract

With the increasing demand for clean energy and low-carbon transportation, next-generation vehicles integrating high-frequency electronic systems have become more complex, raising concerns about in-vehicle electromagnetic exposure. This paper reviews high-frequency devices operating in the 30 kHz–300 GHz range and systematically analyzes the spatial distribution and key frequency characteristics of electromagnetic sources in vehicles. The results show that, even under worst-case conditions, electromagnetic exposure levels for occupants remain well below the safety limits defined by ICNIRP. For example, in a worst-case 5.9 GHz V2V communication scenario, the driver’s head SAR_10g reaches 0.981 W/kg (9.81% of the ICNIRP occupational limit), while the whole-body SAR is only 0.008728 W/kg with negligible temperature rise. Other systems, including 5G-V2X, automotive radar, and mobile phones, also produce exposure levels far below safety thresholds. These findings suggest that RF exposure levels for vehicle occupants remain low relative to current guideline limits under the assessed scenarios. However, key challenges remain, including limited studies on multi-source exposure, insufficient data on vulnerable populations, simplified simulation conditions, lack of standardized validation methods, and inadequate assessment of emerging technologies. This work provides a quantitative basis for future safety standards and highlights critical research directions.

Conclusions and Future Perspectives

This paper systematically reviews various types of vehicular high-frequency communication devices over the past decades, focusing on antenna design, operating frequency, and application scenarios, and provides a comprehensive analysis of their electromagnetic safety.

Vehicular wireless networking systems encompass multiple radio-frequency (RF) technologies, including V2X communication, 5G-V2X, GNSS positioning, mobile communication, Bluetooth, and automotive radar, covering a wide frequency range from 30 kHz to 300 GHz. Across the exposure scenarios assessed in the reviewed studies, most reported electromagnetic exposure levels from vehicular RF devices were below the applicable limits established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) or IEEE.

The following values are therefore presented as representative, study-specific findings rather than as directly pooled estimates, because the reviewed studies differ in source type, operating frequency, antenna configuration, exposure scenario, human model, and dosimetric endpoint. Specifically, for V2X communication systems operating at 5.9 GHz, the maximum localized SAR_10g in the driver’s head under worst-case conditions is approximately 0.981 W/kg, corresponding to 9.81% of the ICNIRP occupational limit (10 W/kg). The whole-body SAR is 0.008728 W/kg, and the 30 min averaged core temperature rise is 0.055 °C, representing only 5.5% of the allowable limit (1 °C) [63]. When the sunroof is open, the maximum skin SAR_10g reaches 72.39 mW/kg, accounting for 3.62% of the limit [79]. Pedestrian exposure in children is significantly lower than that in adults, with a maximum whole-body SAR of approximately W/kg [61]. For 5G-V2X systems at 3.5 GHz, the maximum head skin SAR_10g for pedestrians is 6.818 mW/kg, remaining well below safety limits [64].

GNSS/navigation antennas are not summarized as primary RF exposure sources because they normally operate as passive receiving devices; their relevance to vehicular electromagnetic environments is mainly associated with positioning reliability, antenna integration, and electromagnetic compatibility. In the case of automotive mmWave radar, the whole-body SAR in a 24 GHz single-antenna scenario is as low as W/kg, while multi-antenna configurations (two or four antennas) increase SAR by approximately one order of magnitude (≈ W/kg), still far below the limit of 0.4 W/kg [65]. For 57.35/58.45 GHz radar, the maximum measured power density at a distance of 20 cm is 0.29 W/m² [62]. For 79 GHz radar, even at a very short distance of 10 mm under typical operating power (EIRP = 26.8 dBm), exposure remains well below the limit. Only under extremely high power (55 dBm) and very close proximity may short-term exposure approach the limit; however, compliance is still ensured when evaluated using absorbed energy density within 0.5 s [70].

For mobile communication and Wi-Fi/Bluetooth devices, the peak electric field strength in typical in-vehicle scenarios is approximately 32 V/m, which is below the ICNIRP reference level (61 V/m) [74]. Under simultaneous operation of four sources, the maximum electric field strength is 4.82 V/m [94]. The maximum measured local SAR of a 4G TD-LTE mobile phone (200 mW) inside the vehicle is 0.1613 W/kg, significantly lower than the limit of 2 W/kg [77]. Furthermore, studies on military vehicle antennas operating in the HF band (16 MHz) indicate that even when the external electric field strength (127 V/m) exceeds the ICNIRP reference level (86.3 V/m), the internal whole-body SAR (0.2 mW/kg) and head SAR_10g (3.2–14.0 mW/kg) remain well below safety limits [96].

Taken together, these study-specific findings indicate that the reported exposure levels generally remained within the applicable ICNIRP or IEEE limits under the assessed thermal-effect endpoints and operating conditions. However, this conclusion should not be interpreted as evidence that all real-world vehicular RF exposure scenarios have been fully characterized.

These quantitative findings have scientific and engineering value, but their interpretation should remain linked to the specific assumptions and endpoints of each study. From a health-risk assessment perspective, the reviewed results provide evidence that, under the assessed scenarios, localized SAR, whole-body SAR, power density, and temperature rise were generally below the corresponding thermal-effect limits. For example, even under relatively conservative conditions, such as close proximity to antennas, multi-source operation, or sunroof-open scenarios, the reported maximum localized SAR did not exceed 49% of the ICNIRP limit, while core temperature rise remained below 6% of the allowable threshold. In several scenarios, including 24 GHz radar and 5G-V2X, reported exposure levels were two to four orders of magnitude lower than the relevant limits.

From an engineering design perspective, these quantitative results provide practical boundary conditions for vehicle manufacturers and antenna engineers. For instance, 79 GHz radar remains compliant even at a 10 mm distance under typical power levels, while multi-antenna configurations at 24 GHz increase SAR by only one order of magnitude. Such findings can guide antenna placement optimization and transmission power control strategies.

Furthermore, certain extreme scenarios—such as increased SAR under sunroof-open conditions or near-field exposure to high-power mmWave radar—highlight the necessity for cautious design under boundary conditions and provide insights for future refinement of safety standards. Rather than forming a unified dataset, the compiled evidence provides a comparative evidence map across different source types, frequency bands, exposure metrics, and assessment methods. This evidence map can help identify representative exposure ranges, methodological gaps, and priorities for future guideline refinement and risk assessment in vulnerable populations, including individuals with implants and pregnant women.

The strength of evidence also varies across studies. Higher-confidence evidence comes from studies that clearly report source parameters, antenna location, transmitted power, human model or measurement position, frequency-appropriate exposure metrics, validation procedures, uncertainty analysis, and explicit comparison with ICNIRP or IEEE limits. Lower-confidence evidence generally arises from simplified source models, incomplete reporting of exposure conditions, single-source assumptions, limited validation, or the absence of uncertainty quantification. This distinction should be considered when interpreting the reported values and when using them to inform exposure assessment or engineering design.

Despite extensive research efforts, several challenges and research gaps remain in the context of intelligent and autonomous vehicles:

(i) Insufficient investigation of multi-source and multi-frequency composite exposure scenarios. Most existing studies focus on single-frequency or single-source exposure, whereas real vehicular environments involve simultaneous operation of multiple RF systems (e.g., V2X, 5G-V2X, GNSS, Bluetooth/Wi-Fi, and radar). Future studies should develop comprehensive multi-physics and multi-source exposure assessment frameworks. For such scenarios, cumulative exposure should be evaluated using normalized exposure ratios or cumulative indices rather than by directly comparing incompatible quantities such as SAR, field strength, and power density.
(ii) Limited research on electromagnetic exposure in special populations. There is a lack of data for infants, children in car seats, implant users (e.g., pacemakers, cochlear implants), and pregnant women. In particular, interactions between RF systems and active medical implants remain largely unexplored.
(iii) Oversimplified exposure scenarios. Most simulations assume static human models and single RF sources, neglecting real-world factors such as multiple devices, dynamic transmission power, multipath reflections, passenger posture, and vehicle configuration. In addition, recent studies on mmWave vehicular edge computing and fluid-antenna-assisted MEC networks indicate that future IoV systems may dynamically adjust transmit power, beam direction, resource allocation, and computation-offloading decisions according to channel conditions and service requirements [
(iv) Lack of full-vehicle experimental validation and standardized evaluation methods. Current studies are dominated by simulations, with limited experimental validation. Differences in models, metrics, and scenarios hinder cross-study comparability, and standardized guidelines for vehicular RF exposure assessment are still lacking.
(v) Insufficient research on long-term exposure and non-thermal effects. Existing assessments are primarily based on short-term thermal effects (SAR, power density, temperature rise), while long-term, low-level exposure and potential non-thermal biological effects remain largely unexplored.
(vi) Lack of prospective assessment for emerging technologies. Future technologies such as 6G, terahertz communication, ultra-massive MIMO, and reconfigurable intelligent surfaces may introduce higher-frequency and higher-density RF exposure, requiring forward-looking safety evaluations.
(vii) Limited biofidelity of human models. Current models do not adequately capture variability across age, gender, body composition, and anatomical differences, nor do they accurately represent implanted medical devices. High-fidelity modeling and uncertainty quantification are urgently needed.

In conclusion, this study provides a systematic review and quantitative analysis of electromagnetic exposure in vehicular RF systems, offering a solid theoretical foundation and reference framework for future safety standards and health risk assessments for both vehicle occupants and pedestrians.

Open access: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/15/15/3418

Chronic 3.5 GHz radiofrequency exposure is associated with behavioral, molecular, and histopathological changes in the rat hippocampus

Bektas H, Cakir S, Alizade A, Dogu S, Altindag F. Chronic 3.5 GHz radiofrequency exposure is associated with behavioral, molecular, and histopathological changes in the rat hippocampus. Int J Radiat Biol. 2026 Aug 7:1-14. doi: 10.1080/09553002.2026.2708930.

Abstract

Purpose: Chronic exposure to mid-band radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields at 3.5 GHz is increasingly relevant to modern wireless environments; however, its effects on hippocampal circuit stability under non-thermal conditions remain unclear. We investigated whether prolonged 3.5-GHz RF exposure is associated with anxiety-like behavior and hippocampal transcript-level changes consistent with excitatory-inhibitory (E/I) imbalance, and whether thymoquinone (TQ) or taurine (TAU) are associated with modulation of these responses.

Materials and methods: Adult male Wistar rats (n = 28) were assigned to Sham, RF, RF + TQ (20 mg/kg), or RF + TAU (20 mg/kg) groups (n = 7/group). Animals were exposed to a GSM-like 3.5-GHz RF signal (2 W; 2 h/day; 5 days/week; 10 weeks). Anxiety-like behavior and spatial learning were assessed using the Elevated Plus Maze (EPM) and Morris Water Maze (MWM). Hippocampal gene expression (bdnf, creb1, camk2a, th, tph2, gad1, slc17a7) was quantified by RT-qPCR, and histopathology by H&E staining.

Results: Dosimetry indicated whole-body SAR of 0.0383 W/kg and brain gray matter SAR of 0.3411 W/kg. RF exposure was associated with reduced open-arm time in the EPM. Expression of slc17a7 increased in the RF group, suggesting a shift toward excitation. Under RF co-exposure conditions, TQ and TAU were associated with changes in slc17a7 expression and with increases in bdnf, creb1, and camk2a, along with inhibitory and monoaminergic markers. RF-exposed hippocampi showed neuronal degeneration, less pronounced in antioxidant-treated groups.

Conclusions: Chronic non-thermal 3.5-GHz RF exposure is associated with anxiety-like behavior and a hippocampal molecular-structural profile consistent with E/I imbalance and tissue stress. TQ and TAU were associated with context-dependent changes under RF co-exposure conditions; however, due to the absence of antioxidant-only control groups, independent effects cannot be determined. These findings suggest that synaptic homeostasis may represent a potential target of prolonged mid-band RF exposure.

Plain language summary

Chronic 3.5-GHz RF exposure was associated with anxiety-like behavior. RF exposure increased hippocampal slc17a7 expression under non-thermal conditions. No robust impairment of spatial learning was observed in the Morris Water Maze. Transcript-level changes were observed in the RF + TQ and RF + TAU groups under RF co-exposure conditions. Findings suggest potential modulation of excitatory–inhibitory balance in the hippocampus.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42566258/

Immediate Effects of Magnetic Stimulation on Dentate Gyrus Glutamatergic and GABAergic Neuron Excitability

Ren Z, Lu B, Qiu H, Wang Z, Wang T, Kang J, Zou T, Zhu H, Ding C. Immediate Effects of Magnetic Stimulation on Dentate Gyrus Glutamatergic and GABAergic Neuron Excitability. Brain Sci. 2026 Jun 26;16(7):673. doi: 10.3390/brainsci16070673.

Abstract

Background/Objectives: To investigate the immediate regulatory effects of magnetic stimulation with different parameters on the excitability of glutamatergic neurons and GABAergic neurons in the mouse hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG), and to analyze the underlying mechanisms using the Hodgkin-Huxley (HH) model.

Methods: Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were performed on acute brain slices to measure changes in resting membrane potential (RMP), the number of action potentials (APs) evoked by 500-ms long-duration stimulation, as well as AP threshold, peak, half-width, maximum rising slope, and maximum falling slope under magnetic stimulation at various frequencies (1, 10, 20 Hz) and intensities (50, 75 mT). An improved HH model was established based on experimental data to analyze the dynamic changes in gating variables under magnetic stimulation.

Results: High-frequency magnetic stimulation (10-20 Hz) significantly increased the number of APs in both neuron types. In glutamatergic neurons, the number of APs increased from 10.12 ± 0.52 in the control group to 15.62 ± 0.84 in the 20 Hz-75 mT group; in GABAergic neurons, it increased from 7.88 ± 0.40 to 12.62 ± 0.53. Magnetic stimulation also depolarized RMP and significantly altered multiple AP waveform parameters in both neuron types. Glutamatergic neurons showed a more distinct frequency dependence, whereas GABAergic neurons were more sensitive to changes in both frequency and intensity in terms of RMP and multiple waveform parameters. Simulation results showed that the 1 Hz conditions produced negligible changes in AP firing, gating-variable dynamics, and steady-state ion-channel parameters compared with the Control condition. In contrast, high-frequency stimulation enhanced the dynamic changes of sodium and potassium channel gating variables and altered their voltage-dependent steady-state properties. Specifically, sodium channel activation shifted toward more negative potentials, whereas sodium channel inactivation and potassium channel activation shifted toward more depolarized potentials.

Conclusions: Under the experimental conditions of this study, magnetic stimulation immediately enhanced the excitability of glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of male mice in a frequency-dependent manner. The modified HH model reproduced both the weak effects under low-frequency stimulation and the enhanced excitability under high-frequency stimulation, suggesting that these immediate effects may be related to frequency-dependent changes in the gating kinetics and voltage-dependent properties of sodium and potassium channels.

Open access: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/16/7/673

Protective Effects of Coenzyme Q10 Against Urogenital Damage Induced by 2.45 GHz Wi-Fi Radiofrequency Radiation in Rats

Mousapour E, Karimi A, Ebrahimi S, Rezaie A, Rahimi K, et al. Protective Effects of Coenzyme Q10 Against Urogenital Damage Induced by 2.45 GHz Wi-Fi Radiofrequency Radiation in Rats. Jundishapur J Nat Pharm Prod. 2026;21(1):e169131. doi: 10.5812/jjnpp-169131.

Abstract

Background: Wi-Fi exposure has been associated with oxidative stress and reproductive toxicity; however, protective strategies remain under investigation.

Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) against oxidative stress–mediated reproductive and renal damage induced by prolonged exposure to 2.45 GHz Wi-Fi radiofrequency radiation in male Wistar rats by assessing oxidative stress markers, antioxidant enzyme activities, sperm parameters, testosterone levels, and testicular and renal histopathological changes.

Methods: Male Wistar rats (n = 40) were allocated to the control, Wi-Fi, Wi-Fi+CoQ10, Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), and vehicle groups. Animals were exposed to Wi-Fi radiation at 2.45 GHz [specific absorption rate (SAR) ≈ 0.9 W/kg, 7 h/day for 8 weeks]. CoQ10 was administered orally at 150 mg/kg/day. Oxidative stress markers [malondialdehyde (MDA)], antioxidant enzyme activities [superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx)], sperm parameters, testosterone levels, and histopathology of the testes and kidneys were assessed. Statistical analyses were performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test.

Results: Wi-Fi exposure significantly increased MDA levels in the testes and kidneys (P < 0.01, η2 = 0.39) and reduced antioxidant enzyme activities (P < 0.01, η2 = 0.41). Sperm count, motility, and testosterone levels declined markedly (P < 0.05). Histopathological changes were evident in the seminiferous tubules and renal tissues. CoQ10 supplementation alone reduced MDA (P < 0.05) and increased antioxidant enzyme activities above baseline (P < 0.05). Combined treatment (Wi-Fi+CoQ10) partially restored enzyme activities and attenuated oxidative stress compared with that in the Wi-Fi group (P < 0.05).

Conclusions: Prolonged Wi-Fi exposure at 2.45 GHz (SAR ≈ 0.9 W/kg) induces oxidative stress-mediated damage in reproductive and renal tissues, resulting in impaired sperm quality and hormonal imbalance. CoQ10 supplementation demonstrated protective effects by reducing oxidative damage and partially restoring reproductive indices. These findings suggest that continuous Wi-Fi exposure may pose reproductive risks, whereas antioxidant strategies such as CoQ10 could mitigate these effects.

Excerpt

Wi-Fi radiation was generated using a standard router (TP Link Archer C6, China) operating at 2.45 GHz. Rats were placed 30 cm away from the source in their cages. The specific absorption rate (SAR) was measured using a calibrated spectrum analyzer (Narda SRM 3006, Germany) and maintained at 0.1 - 0.2 W/kg. Background electromagnetic sources, such as mobile phones and Bluetooth devices, were eliminated during exposure. The daily exposure duration of 7 h/day was selected based on previous studies reporting significant reproductive effects under similar conditions (1).

Open access: https://brieflands.com/journals/jjnpp/articles/169131

Testicular damage from electromagnetic radiation in rats and evaluation of protective agents

Gözüküçük A, Çakıroğlu B, Uyanik BS, Kılıç HH, Çelik İS. Testicular damage from electromagnetic radiation in rats and evaluation of protective agents. Urologia. 2026 Jul 25:3915603261448981. doi: 10.1177/03915603261448981.

Abstract

Background: Male infertility has been associated with various environmental, physiological, and genetic factors. In recent years, the widespread use of mobile phones has raised concerns regarding exposure to electromagnetic radiation (EMR). EMR emitted from mobile devices may adversely affect male reproductive function by inducing oxidative stress and impairing spermatogenesis.

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the potential protective effects of vitamin E and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) against EMR-induced testicular damage in rats.

Methods: A total of 35 adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into five groups (n = 7 per group): control, EMR exposure, EMR + NAC, EMR + vitamin E, and EMR + NAC + vitamin E. Rats were exposed to EMR generated by a mobile phone operating in the GSM frequency band (900/1800 MHz) in active call mode, positioned at a fixed distance of 15 cm from the cages, for 3 h daily over 28 days. The specific absorption rate (SAR) was based on manufacturer-reported values. Biochemical analyses were performed to assess total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Data distribution was evaluated using the Shapiro-Wilk test, and group comparisons were conducted using the Kruskal-Wallis test with appropriate post-hoc analyses.

Results: Significant differences were observed among groups in terms of total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (p < 0.001). TAC levels were reduced in the EMR-only group compared to controls, whereas antioxidant supplementation (NAC and/or vitamin E) resulted in increased TAC levels. Post-hoc analyses demonstrated significant improvements in TAC in treatment groups compared to both control and EMR-only groups. However, no statistically significant differences were observed among groups for GPX, SOD, and MDA levels (p > 0.05).

Conclusion: N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and vitamin E may exert partial protective effects against EMR-induced oxidative alterations in rat testes, particularly as reflected by improvements in total antioxidant capacity. However, given that other oxidative stress markers did not demonstrate statistically significant differences, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Further experimental and clinical studies with larger sample sizes and detailed histopathological evaluation are required to better elucidate the potential therapeutic role and clinical relevance of these antioxidant agents.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42499284/

Differential Effects of 3.5 GHz and 24 GHz 5G Radiofrequency Exposure on Male Sexual Behaviour and Reproductive Endocrine Function in Rats

Hairulazam A, Ibrahim SF, Osman K, Mokhtar MH, Zulkefli AF, Mat Ros MF, Jamaludin N, Syed Taha SMA, Vijay S, Zakaria Z, et al. Differential Effects of 3.5 GHz and 24 GHz 5G Radiofrequency Exposure on Male Sexual Behaviour and Reproductive Endocrine Function in Rats. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2026; 27(16):7102. doi: 10.3390/ijms27167102.

Abstract

The rapid expansion of 5G technology has increased exposure to high-frequency radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF), raising concerns about male reproductive health. This study investigated the effects of 5G frequencies at 3.5 GHz and 24 GHz on male libido, reproductive hormones, the testosterone-to-oestrogen (T/E) ratio, and androgen receptor expression in rats. Eighteen male Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly assigned to Control, 3.5 GHz, and 24 GHz (n = 6/group). Exposed groups received 7 h/day RF-EMF exposure for 60 consecutive days, while the Control underwent sham exposure. During the final week of exposure, mating behaviours were assessed using mount frequency, mount latency, intromission frequency, ejaculation latency, and post-ejaculatory interval. Serum testosterone and oestrogen levels, the T/E ratio and androgen receptor expression in the testis and hypothalamus were evaluated. The 3.5 GHz group demonstrated statistically significantly prolonged ejaculation latency (3480 ± 1576.956, p < 0.01, Hedges’ g = 1.03) compared with the Control group. In contrast, 24 GHz exposure statistically significantly reduced mount frequency (4.80 ± 0.837, p < 0.01, Hedges’ g = −0.65) and prolonged the post-ejaculatory interval (588.83 ± 206.41 s, p < 0.01, Hedges’ g = 1.63) compared with the Control group. Hormonal analysis revealed statistically significant elevation of testosterone levels in the 3.5 GHz group, whereas the 24 GHz group showed statistically significant reductions in testosterone and oestrogen. Androgen receptor expression was unchanged. These findings suggest frequency-dependent effects of 5G RF-EMF on male libido and endocrine balance.

Open access: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/27/16/7102

Design and Realization of an ELF-EMF Generator and Effects of Different Magnetic Flux Densities on Cancerous and Healthy Cell Viability

Avci F, Ağrali E, Alkiş ME, Yaman O, Çavaş M. Design and Realization of an ELF-EMF Generator and Effects of Different Magnetic Flux Densities on Cancerous and Healthy Cell Viability. Applied Sciences. 2026; 16(14):6982. doi: 10.3390/app16146982

Abstract

This study aimed to develop a low-cost, computer-controlled, extremely low-frequency 50 Hz electromagnetic field (ELF-EMF) generator and to investigate the effects of EMF exposure at intensities of 0.1, 1, 5, and 10 mT (millitesla) on human osteosarcoma (U2OS) and healthy bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cell lines. First, a computer-controlled ELF-EMF generator was successfully designed and developed for in vitro exposure studies. Subsequently, the cells were exposed to 50 Hz EMFs at flux densities ranging from 0.1 to 10 mT, and cell viability was assessed using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay 24 h after exposure. A significant decrease in cell viability was observed in U2OS cells exposed to 5 and 10 mT EMFs (p < 0.05), whereas no significant difference was detected at 0.1 and 1 mT exposures (p > 0.05). In BEAS-2B cells, a significant decrease in cell viability was observed only following exposure to 10 mT EMFs (p < 0.05), with no significant differences at 0.1, 1, or 5 mT exposures. These findings suggest that 50 Hz EMFs may affect cellular processes and inhibit the proliferation of U2OS cancer cells more than that of BEAS-2B cells. EMFs with specific frequencies and intensities may represent a novel approach for controlling the growth of U2OS cancer cells.

Open access: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/16/14/6982

Magnetogenetics: Tools for Noninvasive Neuromodulation with Cellular Resolution

Tran TT, Hernández-Morales M, Han V, Liu C. Magnetogenetics: Tools for Noninvasive Neuromodulation with Cellular Resolution. J Neurosci. 2026 Aug 5;46(31):e0315252026. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0315-25.2026.

Abstract

Magnetogenetics is emerging as a promising tool to control neuronal activity and overcome the limitations of chemogenetics and optogenetics. While chemogenetics is restricted in temporal resolution, optogenetics is invasive and limited in penetration depth. Magnetogenetics addresses these challenges by offering a noninvasive approach that enables wireless and on-demand control of neuronal activity. Magnetogenetics uses synthetic magnetic nanoparticles or the protein ferritin as transducers to convert magnetic ﬁelds into thermal, mechanical, or biochemical signals that can activate ion channels and proteins sensitive to these stimuli. To achieve cellular resolution, the neurons of interest are genetically targeted by the expression of diverse ion channels that confer sensitivity to magnetic stimulation or by targeting transducers to ion channels via linkers such as antibodies and other binding domains. Neuroscientists have used magnetogenetics to drive calcium-dependent gene expression, to excite or inhibit neurons, and to modulate behavior in animal models, as discussed in this review. The efficacy of these methods has been met with skepticism, and the fundamental mechanisms have been unclear. However, several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of magnetogenetics and uncovered the underlying mechanisms. While improvements are still needed for magnetogenetics to become a routine technique to control neuronal activity, there is tremendous potential for both technical innovation and applications. This review discusses the current approaches from their development and limitations to their applications across research ﬁelds, particularly neuroscience.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42557107/

Effect of non-ionizing radiation on the growth of wheat plant

Khalaf HNB, Moustafa M, Abdel-Moneim, MMY et al. Effect of non-ionizing radiation on the growth of wheat plant. Discov Appl Sci 8, 798 (2026). doi: 10.1007/s42452-026-09039-5

Abstract

Using microwave irradiation in seed treatment as a physical mutagen is one of the promising technologies in plant breeding that seeks to increase plant productivity and improve their quality. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) grains were exposed to microwave emitter at distance 1 cm from the microwave window with frequency of 9.88 GHz and power 4.6 mW which is applied for times of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 min to get different doses of irradiation. Wheat grains were divided into two groups for in vitro and in vivo experiments. The percentage of germinated grains as well as mitotic index increased for seeds exposed to microwave radiation with short exposure periods. However, germination percentage and values of mitotic index were significantly decreased with increasing exposure periods of microwave. Some types of chromosomal abnormalities were observed in the examined cells, and the highest percentage of aberrant cells were recorded in grains irradiated for 60 min. Growth parameters, including root and shoot length, were stimulated by short-term exposure but inhibited by long-term exposure.

Conclusions

Plants are extremely complex creatures that react differently to many stresses in various environmental situations. When some researchers investigated the effect of such radiation on plants, the results were mixed. In view of this, our study foresees the effects of microwaves on seed germination, cell division and growth of wheat as a commercial crop. The results obtained showed that pre-sowing exposure of grains to microwave radiation with frequency of 9.88 GHz and power 4.6 mW for time intervals as 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 min influenced the germination and the mitotic cell division of the tested plants. However, exposure time at 60 min. reduced cell proliferation and induced aberrant cells. So, we can conclude that microwave radiation may have a good effect by regulating dosages and minimizing seed exposure time to radiation.

Open access: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42452-026-09039-5

Evaluating Human Perception Thresholds in Magnetic Stimulation Using Experimental Measurements and Modelling

Kangasmaa O, Laakso I. Evaluating Human Perception Thresholds in Magnetic Stimulation Using Experimental Measurements and Modelling. Bioelectromagnetics. 2026 Sep;47(6): e70066. doi: 10.1002/bem.70066.

Abstract

This preregistered study investigated whether induced electric fields alone could predict human perception thresholds in magnetic stimulation. Using a figure-of-eight magnetic coil placed on the forearm, perception thresholds were collected from 24 healthy participants using the method of adjustment in 12 stimulation conditions. Subject-fitted, anatomically realistic forearm models were constructed from a set of 10 MRI-based models. Induced electric fields were computed using the finite element method with probabilistic tissue conductivities and post-processed using spatial averaging and percentiles. Linear mixed-effects modelling showed that the perception threshold was 32.2 V/m (SD between subjects 5.2 V/m) for a damped sinusoidal magnetic pulse with 83 s phase duration. This threshold value was determined by spatial averaging over a cube with a side length of 2 mm and taking the 99th percentile of the electric field within the modelled forearms. However, the induced electric field did not fully explain the perception threshold (adjusted = 0.48; permutation testing, p 0.001). We also conducted a supplementary modelling study, retrospectively analysing previous literature results to allow for direct comparison with our findings. These results showed that simplified calculations of the threshold electric field, obtained by modelling the forearm as a uniform cylinder, need to be scaled by a factor of 1.4 to align with the 99th percentile electric field calculated with anatomically realistic models. Both our experimental results and the modelling provide data to inform the refinement of safety guidelines.

Open access: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bem.70066

Effects of Pulsed Electromagnetic Field Application on Glucose Metabolism in Rats

Gencer H, Bilgin HM, Akpolat V, Erkan REC, Alabalık U, Baksi N, Akpolat İ. Effects of Pulsed Electromagnetic Field Application on Glucose Metabolism in Rats. Bioelectromagnetics. 2026 Sep;47(6):e70067. doi: 10.1002/bem.70067.

Abstract

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) exposure on glucose metabolism-related hormonal and oxidative stress markers. Twenty-three male Wistar albino rats were randomly assigned to three groups: sham-control (n = 7), PEMF (n = 8), and PEMF + vitamin C (n = 8). The PEMF and PEMF + vitamin C groups were exposed to a pulsed magnetic field at 50 Hz and 1.5 mT for 4 h daily over 4 weeks. Vitamin C (250 mg/kg/day) was administered orally to the PEMF + vitamin C group. Serum and tissue levels of insulin, glucagon, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and total oxidant capacity (TOC) were measured. Histopathological evaluations of brain, liver, and pancreatic tissues were also performed. Serum glucose, insulin, glucagon, GLP-1, SIRT1, TAC, and TOC levels did not differ significantly among the experimental groups. Gastric TAC levels were significantly higher in the PEMF + vitamin C group. In renal tissue, insulin levels were significantly elevated only in the PEMF + vitamin C group. PEMF exposure did not induce systemic biochemical changes in healthy rats but elicited tissue-specific biochemical responses, particularly in gastric tissue. These findings suggest that PEMF may modulate glucose-related endocrine and redox pathways at the gastrointestinal level without causing structural tissue damage.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42504996/

Disruption of magnetic orientation in migratory songbirds by radiofrequency magnetic fields is mediated by a specialized sensory system

Kavokin K, Bojarinova J, Sannikov D, Cherbunin R, Pakhomov A, Fedorishcheva A, Chernetsov N. Disruption of magnetic orientation in migratory songbirds by radiofrequency magnetic fields is mediated by a specialized sensory system. J R Soc Interface. 2026 Jul 22;23(240):20260129. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2026.0129.

Abstract

Direction finding in migratory birds is known to be affected by oscillating magnetic fields (OMFs) in the radiofrequency range. This experimental fact was earlier interpreted in terms of the direct influence of OMFs on electron spins in the molecule of cryptochrome that, according to the photochemical model of magnetoreception, serves as the primary sensor of the geomagnetic field. In our experiments, birds (pied flycatchers) were subjected to OMFs with carrier frequencies of 1.41 and 1.5 MHz with the square wave amplitude modulation at 500 Hz. The modulated OMF, having twice less mean power than that without modulation, nevertheless caused disorientation at a lower amplitude of the carrier wave than the unmodulated OMF. Since the prediction of the photochemical theory is exactly the opposite, we conclude that the effect of OMFs on the magnetic orientation of birds is not related to the decoherence of electron spins in cryptochrome. Instead, we suggest that OMFs are perceived by a separate sensory system, most likely based on electromagnetic induction. This hypothetical sensory system, specialized at the detection of magnetic perturbations caused by solar flares or thunderstorms, might react to shape rather than to the mean power of the detected signal, which would explain its higher sensitivity to modulated OMFs.

Open access: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/rsif/article/23/240/20260129/482563/Disruption-of-magnetic-orientation-in-migratory

Evaluation of the synergistic and antagonistic antibacterial effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields combined with ciprofloxacin and nanochitosan

Khalil, A.M., Seiffein, N.L., El-Refaie, W.M. et al. Evaluation of the synergistic and antagonistic antibacterial effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields combined with ciprofloxacin and nanochitosan. Sci Rep 16, 23063 (2026). doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-63235-2.

Abstract

This study introduces an innovative electromagnetic nano-approach to combat high-severity bacterial infections without relying solely on high-dose antibiotics. We investigate the synergistic potential of extremely low-frequency pulsed electromagnetic wave (ELF PEMW) exposure (< 20 Hz) as a physical catalyst to enhance the bio-activity of ciprofloxacin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (Cipro-C-NPs). This method provides a pivotal alternative for managing Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus in an era of escalating multi-drug resistance. Cipro-C-NPs were synthesized with high encapsulation efficiency. Bacteria were subjected to a multi-factorial screening involving three antibacterial agents, two physical fields (pulsed magnetic and electric), and varying frequencies (0.7, 6, and 20 Hz) for durations of 20 and 60 min. As a high-throughput preliminary screen, this work aimed to map the qualitative landscape of bio-electromagnetic interactions. Contrary to the hypothesis of enhanced membrane permeability, ELF PEMW functioned as a biophysical antagonist. The electromagnetic field appeared to trigger membrane hyperpolarization, increasing transmembrane potential and restricting porin-mediated transport of the antibiotic. Simultaneously, the field reduced the zeta-potential of the chitosan nanoparticles, leading to significant colloidal aggregation. These large aggregates were physically excluded from bacterial entry routes, resulting in increased Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs). Notably, the degree of antagonism was species-specific, suggesting that membrane capacitance and porin density dictate electromagnetic susceptibility. This study reveals a critical bio-electromagnetic trade-off: while physical fields can modulate cellular behavior, poorly tuned parameters can inadvertently fortify bacterial defenses and reduce drug bioavailability. These findings provide a vital “negative roadmap” for future research, highlighting the need for direct electrophysiological mapping of efflux pumps and membrane potentials. This work serves as a foundational step toward precision-targeted, physics-assisted antimicrobial therapies.

Open access: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-63235-2

Unveiling the spectrum: Understanding directed energy weapon injuries and military health care implications

McNairn J, Blaskovits F, St Onge M, Coleby J, Khan A, Dhillon P. Unveiling the spectrum: Understanding directed energy weapon injuries and military health care implications. J Mil Veteran Fam Health. 2026 Mar 27;12(2):89-100. doi: 10.3138/jmvfh-2025-0041.

Abstract

Introduction: Directed energy weapons (DEWs) are emerging technologies that are transforming the modern battlespace. Despite their increasing presence, the associated injury patterns and health outcomes remain poorly understood. This review aims to consolidate existing knowledge on DEW-related injuries to assist military medical professionals in improving clinical care.

Methods: A scoping review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines and included peer-reviewed and grey literature from 1980 to Nov. 30, 2024. Databases searched included PubMed, MEDLINE, AccessMedicine (textbooks), the Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Google Scholar, and Military Legal Resources (U.S. Army JAG School). Studies that focused on chemical, acoustic, and electrical/electromagnetic weapons were excluded because of differing pathophysiology. Two independent reviewers performed screening and data extraction. Results were synthesized narratively.

Results: Out of 200 identified studies, 33 met inclusion criteria. Most documented injuries involved thermal damage to skin, internal organs, and eyes. Notably, data were sparse on reproductive effects and the management of DEW injuries in polytrauma. Evidence suggests that DEWs may inflict central nervous system or deep tissue damage without external signs, potentially delaying diagnosis and treatment. Injury severity varied by energy type, anatomical target, and exposure duration.

Discussion: DEWs introduce novel clinical challenges for military health care providers, with injury profiles that may not align with traditional trauma paradigms. Standard physical assessments may fail to detect certain injuries. Long-term health outcomes following DEW exposure are largely unknown. There is an urgent need to develop and validate clinical guidelines and treatment protocols as DEWs become increasingly integrated into military operations.

Plain language summary

Directed energy weapons (DEWs), such as high-energy lasers and microwaves are increasingly used in modern warfare, but their health impacts are not well understood. This review explores the limited available research to understand how DEWs can injure the human body. Most known effects involve burns, eye damage, and internal injuries without visible signs. Unlike traditional weapons, DEWs may cause delayed symptoms or damage organs without leaving a mark on the skin. This study also highlights how little clinical guidance exists for treating these injuries, especially in combat settings. Medical personnel may need new diagnostic and treatment approaches to manage such cases. The article emphasizes the need for better awareness, protective equipment, and research to keep pace with the growing use of DEWs on the battlefield.

Open access: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13293093/

Corrigendum to “Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure on cancer in laboratory animal studies, a systematic review”

Mevissen M, Ducray A, Ward JM, Kopp-Schneider A, McNamee JP, Wood AW, Rivero TM, Straif K. Corrigendum to “Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure on cancer in laboratory animal studies, a systematic review” [Environ. Int. 199 (2025). Environment International, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2026.110368.

Abstract

Background More than ten years ago, the World Health Organization’s (WHO) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) published a monograph concluding there was limited evidence in experimental animals for carcinogenicity of Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Field (RF EMF).

Objective The objective of this review was to systematically evaluate the effects of RF EMF exposure on cancer in experimental animals.

Methods Eligibility criteria: Based on pre-established Populations, Exposures, Comparators, Outcomes, and Study Type (PECOS) criteria, studies in experimental animals of the following study types were included: chronic cancer bioassays, initiation-(co-)promotion studies, and studies with tumor-prone animals. Information sources: MEDLINE (PubMed), Science Citation Index Expanded and Emerging Sources Citation Index (Web of Science), and the EMF Portal. Data abstraction and synthesis: Data are publicly available online as interactive visuals with downloadable metadata. We adapted the risk-of-bias (RoB) tool developed by Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) to include considerations pertinent to the evaluation of RF EMF exposure and cancer bioassays. Study sensitivity was assessed with a tool adopted from the Report on Carcinogens (RoC). We synthesized studies using a narrative approach. Effect size was calculated as the 1% Bayesian Average benchmark dose (BMD) of a respective study when dose response or a trend was identified (see Supplementary Data 3). Evidence Assessment: Certainty of the evidence (CoE) was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Developing and Evaluations (GRADE) approach, as refined by OHAT. Evidence from chronic cancer bioassays was considered the most directly applicable to evaluation of carcinogenicity.

Results We included 51 studies with 10 chronic bioassays No studies were excluded based on risk of bias concerns. Studies were not considered suitable for meta-analysis due to heterogeneity in study design, species, strain, sex, exposure characteristics, and cancer outcome. No or minimal evidence of RF EMF exposure-related cancer outcomes was found in most systems or organs in any study (these included gastrointestinal/digestive, kidney, mammary gland, urinary, endocrine, musculoskeletal, reproductive, and auditory). For lymphoma (17 studies), with 5 chronic bioassays (2,186 mice, 2,500 rats) inconsistency between two chronic bioassays was not plausibly explainable, and the CoE for lymphoma was rated ‘moderate’. For brain tumors (20 studies), including 5 chronic bioassays (2,575 mice, 8,840 rats), an increase in glial cell-derived neoplasms was reported in two chronic bioassays in male rats. The CoE for an increased risk in glioma was judged as high. The BMD analysis was statistically significant for only one study, and the BMD was 4.25 (95% CI 2.70, 10.24). For neoplasms of the heart (3 chronic bioassays), 3 studies were performed in rats (∼4,304 animals), and 1 in mice (∼1,386 animals). Based on 2 bioassays, statistically significant increases in malignant schwannomas were judged as high CoE for an increase in heart schwannomas in male rats. The BMDs from the two positive studies were 1.92 (95%CI 0.71, 4.145) and 0.102 (95%CI 0.056, 0.244), respectively. Ten studies reported neoplasms in the adrenal gland (5 chronic bioassays). The CoE for an increased risk in pheochromocytoma was judged as moderate. None of these findings were dose-dependent when compared to the sham controls. Fourteen studies investigated tumors of the liver with 5 of these being chronic bioassays. The CoE was evaluated as moderate for hepatoblastomas. For neoplasms of the lung (5 chronic bioassays), 4 studies were conducted in rats (∼2,176 animals) and 9 studies in mice (∼4,171 animals). In one chronic bioassay, a statistically significant positive trend was reported for bronchio-alveolar adenoma or carcinoma (combined), which was rated as moderate CoE for an increase in lung neoplasms with some evidence from 2 initiation-(co-)promotion studies.

Discussion Meta-analysis was considered inappropriate due to the heterogeneity in study methods. The GRADE/OHAT CoE framework has not been frequently applied to animal studies and experience to date suggests refinements are needed. We deferred to standard methods in environmental health where CoE is framed in the context of strength of the evidence providing positive support for carcinogenicity. High CoE can be interpreted as the true effect is highly likely to be reflected in the apparent relationship. Moderate CoE indicates the true effect may be reflected in the apparent relationship. Cancer bioassays conducted in experimental animals are commonly used to identify potential human carcinogens. We note that the two tumor types with high CoE in animals in this systematic review are the same as those identified with limited evidence in humans by the IARC Working Group. However, even in cases where the animal evidence demonstrates high CoE, the extrapolation of risk from cancer bioassays to humans is particularly complex for RF EMF. Without a better understanding of the mechanism of the carcinogenicity of RF-EMF, the choice of exposure metric for risk extrapolation (whole body versus localized), intensity or cumulative exposure whether or not a monotonic dose response holds for carcinogenic effects, and whether SAR is the appropriate dose metric for adverse effects induced by RF-EMF may be critical.

Other This review was partially funded by the WHO radioprotection programme. The protocol for this review was registered in Prospero reg. no. CRD42021265563 and published in Environment International 2022 (Mevissen et al., 2022)

Highlights

• Systematic review of experimental animal studies on RF EMF on cancer.
• Chronic bioassays were considered most applicable to evaluation of carcinogenicity.
• Studies were not considered suitable for meta-analysis due to heterogeneity.
• No evidence of RF EMF exposure-related cancer outcomes was found in most systems.
• High Certainty of Evidence: RF EMF increased heart schwannomas and glial-cell tumors.

Excerpts

We stress that none of these issues has produced any significant change in the outcomes or in the interpretation or the conclusions of this systematic review....

Final conclusions

The findings of this systematic review indicate that there is evidence that RF EMF exposure increases the incidence of cancer in experimental animals with the CoE being strongest for malignant heart schwannomas and gliomas.

Despite the high level of certainty that evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals may predict a carcinogenic hazard to humans, extrapolation of risk from cancer bioassays to humans is particularly complex for RF EMF. Without an understanding of the mechanism of the carcinogenicity of RF-EMF the choice of exposure metric for risk extrapolation (whole body versus localized), intensity or cumulative exposure whether or not a monotonic dose response holds for carcino genic effects, and whether SAR is the appropriate dose metric for adverse effects induced by RF-EMF may be critical.

Besides the integration of the sensitivity domain adopted from the RoC, more work is needed to tailor the GRADE approach to assessing the CoE from animal cancer bioassays designed to identifying risks of environmental agents.

Open access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412026003260

Electromagnetic Radiation Safety

Thursday, August 13, 2026

Recent Research on Wireless Radiation and Electromagnetic Fields