Abstract
Purpose: The pervasive use of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) emitting devices has raised public health concerns; however, a comprehensive synthesis of in vitro and in vivo evidence is lacking. This narrative review aims to critically evaluate the health impacts of EMR exposure, identify knowledge gaps, and provide a foundation for future research.
Methods: A literature search of Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Web of Science (2000-2026) identified 17,240 records. After duplicate removal and title/abstract screening, 640 articles underwent full‑text assessment. Following exclusion of 525 articles (lack of sham/control, solely thermal effects, inaccessibility, non‑mammalian models), 115 studies were included. The relevant literature was reviewed and narratively synthesized.
Results: EMR exposure consistently induces oxidative stress, DNA damage, and apoptosis, with the nervous and reproductive systems being most vulnerable. Neurobehavioral impairments (anxiety, memory deficits, hippocampal damage) and reproductive toxicity (reduced sperm quality, testicular injury, hormonal dysregulation) were frequently reported. Outcomes are highly dependent on exposure parameters frequency, power density, duration, and modulation. Carcinogenicity evidence remains mixed: some animal studies report increased tumor incidence, while others show no effects.
Conclusion: EMR exposure, particularly at mobile communication frequencies, can induce biological effects primarily through oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Future research should prioritize long‑term prospective human studies and real‑world multi‑frequency exposure scenarios.
Conclusion
This review consolidates evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrating that EMR exposure consistently induces oxidative stress and DNA damage across multiple tissues, with the nervous and reproductive systems being the most vulnerable targets. The severity and nature of these effects are highly dependent on exposure parameters, including frequency, power density, duration, and modulation pattern, with higher frequencies and prolonged exposure generally associated with more pronounced adverse outcomes. At the mechanistic level, oxidative stress emerges as a central mediator, triggering inflammatory cascades, apoptosis, and disruption of the blood brain barrier and testicular architecture. While the majority of studies confirm neurobehavioral impairments, reproductive dysfunction, and systemic inflammation, a subset of investigations, particularly those involving intermittent or low‑dose exposure revealed adaptive responses or lack of overt toxicity, underscoring the importance of exposure protocols in risk assessment. Evidence regarding carcinogenicity remains mixed: some animal studies report increased tumor incidence, while others show no effects, and specific EMF parameters even exhibit therapeutic potential against cancer cells. These contradictions highlight critical knowledge gaps, particularly the scarcity of long‑term human data and the lack of standardized exposure protocols. Future research must focus on delineating the thresholds and mechanisms that distinguish harmful effects from beneficial clinical interventions. Accordingly, future research should prioritize well‑designed prospective human studies, explore multi‑frequency real‑world exposure scenarios, and investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying both harmful and protective effects.
https://link.springer.com/
Abstract Background: In recent decades, growing concerns have emerged considering the decline in human fertility rates. Exposure to radiofrequency (RF) fields has been proposed as a potential risk factor. This systematic review examines in vivo studies exploring the association between RF radiation exposure and reproductive health in mice and rats.
Materials and Methods: Based on PRISMA protocol a comprehensive search was undertaken in ISI Web of Science, MEDLINE–PubMed, and Scopus to August 2024. After applying inclusion/exclusion criteria, 36 (26 in male, 6 in female, 4 in both) out of 1470 identified articles were selected for analysis.
Results: The majority of studies reported adverse reproductive effects, especially in male mice and rats, including reduced sperm quality, histopathological testicular damage, oxidative stress, and hormonal disturbances. Key mechanisms included oxidative stress, apoptosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Studies in female mice and rats were limited but indicated potential risks for pregnancy outcomes (e.g., diminished infant size, fetal abnormalities). Nevertheless, 8 studies found no significant effects.
Conclusion: Current evidence suggests that RF-EMF may adversely affect the male reproductive system, while findings concerning its influence on female reproductive health remain inconsistent and require further investigation. Substantial methodological heterogeneity in exposure parameters—including frequency, duration, distance, SAR, and exposure type (whole-body vs. localized), animal models used, and specific characteristics of RF sources—impaired direct comparability across studies. Future studies should apply standardized exposure paradigms, advanced molecular techniques, and long-term assessments to elucidate the reproductive risks of RF radiation and their relevance to human health to enable more robust risk assessments.
Open access: http://johe.rums.ac.ir/
Background: Mobile phone use has been associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD), but the role of major depressive disorder (MDD) in this relationship remains uncertain.
Methods: We examined self-reported weekly mobile phone call duration and incident heart failure (HF), coronary artery disease (CAD), stroke, and myocardial infarction (MI) in four UK Biobank at-risk cohorts (N = 320,343-328,170) using Cox regression. Baseline MDD was evaluated as a stratification and effect-modification variable. We also conducted two-sample MR and an exploratory two-step MR analysis of the pathway from call duration through MDD to CVD. Genome-wide significant instruments (p<5×10-8) defined the primary MR analysis; p<10-6 was examined as a sensitivity threshold.
Results: In fully adjusted Cox models, call duration greater than 6 h/week was associated with CAD (HR 1.18, 95% CI 1.10-1.27) and stroke (HR 1.17, 95% CI 1.05-1.29) but not HF or MI. MDD-by-call-duration interactions were not significant (all interaction p≥0.115). Primary IVW MR estimates supported associations of genetically predicted call duration with MDD (OR 1.56, 95% CI 1.04-2.33) and CAD (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.13-2.55), whereas estimates for HF, stroke, and MI were imprecise. None of the four primary two-step indirect effects excluded the null, and none remained significant after false-discovery-rate correction at the sensitivity threshold.
Conclusions: Longer weekly mobile phone call duration was prospectively associated with CAD and stroke in UK Biobank. The MR findings provide exploratory, but not conclusive, support for an MDD-related pathway.
Abstract
Introduction Concerns persist regarding possible associations of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) and cancer risk. Few studies have examined the association between occupational exposure to RF-EMF and the risk of follicular lymphoma (FL). Existing research has typically assessed FL in combination with other lymphomas and has suboptimal exposure assessment. We investigated the possible association between occupational RF-EMF exposure and FL in a family-based case-control study using improved exposure metrics.
Methods The study population consisted of 727 FL cases and 484 family controls. Exposure to RF-EMF was estimated using self-reported lifetime occupational histories and exposure intensity rating from the INTEROCC job-exposure matrix (JEM) (separately for electric and magnetic fields) and the CANJEM. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated from logistic regression models.
Results We observed no consistent associations between RF-EMF exposure and FL. For the highest compared to the lowest quartile of lifetime exposure, results using the INTEROCC JEM showed an OR of 0.98 (95%CI: 0.68–1.40) for electric fields and OR of 1.02 (95%CI: 0.72–1.46) for magnetic fields. RF-EMF exposure defined using the CANJEM showed an OR of 0.94 (95%CI: 0.68–1.31). There were also no consistent associations when applying latency periods or time windows.
Conclusion Our findings do not support any consistent association between occupational RF-EMF exposure and risk of developing FL.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
Materials and methods: Forty-eight healthy adults participated in a randomized, counterbalanced provocation study. Working memory performance was assessed using a modified Sternberg working memory task, which was calibrated to individual performance levels in a preliminary testing session. An sXh920 planar exposure system was used to generate a 920 MHz GSM-like signal, providing two double-blind conditions (peak-spatial SAR average over 10 g) of 0 W/kg (Sham) and 2 W/kg (RF-EMF). A standard, 'off the shelf' 250 W infrared globe provided an IR-EMF exposure with an equivalent heating profile over the skin as that due to the RF-EMF exposure (circa 0.3 °C).
Results: RF-EMF exposure did not reduce reaction time in the Sternberg working memory task. Exploratory tests also revealed there was no effect of IR-EMF on reaction time, and no other performance measures (response bias and response discrimination) were affected by either RF-EMF or IR-EMF exposure.
Conclusions: The current study found no evidence that acute exposure to RF-EMF decreases reaction time on a Sternberg working memory task. The failure to replicate our previously reported effect of RF-EMF exposure on reaction time indicates that our initial finding was not an effect of RF-EMF exposure and was likely due to chance.
Highlights
• Citizen science smartphone application produces validated RF-EMF exposure maps at 25 m resolution.
• App-derived 4G LTE exposure estimates correlated well with reference measurements (rs = 0.71-0.87).
• Map reliability stabilises at approximately three to five observations per cell.
• Two network operators were sufficient for stable exposure estimates.
Smartphones track indicators of a reference signal to maintain network connectivity. These can serve as proxies for a subset of environmental radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure from mobile networks. In this multi-country study, we developed conversion functions linking signal indicators collected with the ETAIN 5G-Scientist app to measured RF-EMF exposure. Parallel measurements were conducted across six European countries and Australia using frequency-selective exposimeters and the app. Associations of signal strength and quality indicators with exposure were analysed using log-linear regression models: (1) serving-cell level, relating exposure in the serving frequency band to indicators of the connected cell (Europe n = 2960; Australia n = 747); and (2) location level, relating indicators aggregated across network providers to environmental exposure from 4G-LTE and 5G-NR networks (Europe n = 61; Australia n = 48). At the serving-cell level, 4G-LTE signal strength was positively associated with exposure, while signal quality was inversely associated. For 5G-NR, only signal strength was associated with exposure, with weaker and less consistent relationships than for 4G-LTE. At location level, aggregation across providers reduced model error, suggesting residual variability operates at short temporal and spatial scales. These findings support using smartphone signal indicators to estimate components of environmental RF-EMF exposure, although further validation is needed, particularly for 5G-NR.
Conclusions
Signal indicators collected with the ETAIN 5G Scientist app provide a promising basis for characterising average environmental RF-EMF exposure from mobile networks at the population level. LTE signal indicators were found to be more informative proxies for environmental exposure, whereas NR signal indicators currently appear to be less reliable. While smartphones are not measurement instruments and cannot replace dedicated devices for compliance assessment, they may offer a scalable, low-cost approach to RF-EMF exposure assessment that is well aligned with the needs of epidemiological research and risk communication. However, future studies should assess the validity of this approach in independent settings and populations.
Hussain ZA, Baiee HA, Abduirasol ZA. Advances in Applied Biological Research. Cell Phone Tower Radiations And Associated Health Hazards In Hilla City, Babylon, Iraq. 3(1):57-63. doi: 10.48165/aabr.2026.3.1.06
Abstract
Background: The obvious increase in mobile phone base stations in Iraq after the year 2003 has raised worries about potential nonspecific health symptoms affected by electromagnetic radiation produced. Studies on this issue in Iraq were scarce. Objective of the study: To identify the possible nonspecific health problems among adult inhabitants who lived for five years or more at a distance of up to 300 meters from mobile phone base stations and towers compared to those who lived far away from cell phone towers (500 meters and more).
Open access: https://www.acspublisher.com/
• Exposure is higher when the phone is connected to 4G-LTE network compared to 5G-NR network
• Suboptimal network signal quality results in higher exposure to the same mobile phone usage compared to when the network quality is strong
No abstract
Fernández-Rodríguez CE, Bonin G, Bevilaqua CR, Bulla G, De Salles AAA, Heroux P, Philips A, Chamberlin K. λ-psSAR to Estimate Cellular Phone Radiation Exposures. IEEE Access, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2026.3737007.
The most relevant next step is measurement-based validation. Conventional and alternative averages should be calculated from the same experimentally acquired SAR maps and compared across frequencies, devices, laboratories, and, where feasible, measured or independently predicted temperature rise. Such studies should determine whether smaller fixed or wavelength-dependent volumes improve thermal correspondence without introducing unacceptable sensitivity to probe spacing, interpolation, positioning, boundary handling, and uncertainty. The present work therefore supports evaluating alternatives to the 1 g and 10 g cubes, but it does not yet justify replacing existing homologation criteria.
The computational burden is concentrated in the electromagnetic and thermal field solutions rather than in the additional spatial averages. Nevertheless, the present conclusions remain limited by the finite model set, normalized single-frequency exposures, approximate tissue wavelength and density used to define the variable masses, and reliance on the Pennes bioheat model. These limitations preclude treating any single wavelength fraction as a universal biological or regulatory averaging scale at this stage.
--
Abstract
Highlights
• Long-term 27.5 GHz FR2 exposure affects sperm quality depending on genetic background.
• Sperm motility and tail morphology are the most sensitive indicators of 27.5 GHz FR2 effects.
• The biological effects occur regardless of significant changes in temperature.
• Biological effects were observed without a consistent dose-response relationship.
Objective: Exposure to extremely low-frequency (ELF) electromagnetic fields can have harmful effects on human health. The present systematic review study aimed to investigate the relationship between occupational exposure to ELF and cardiovascular outcomes.
Methods: Searches were conducted in six electronic bibliographic databases: Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar. This search included records up to August 19, 2026. The search strategy used two sets of keywords. Following the selection of proper studies, relevant data were extracted by the reviewers. To assess the risk of bias in the included studies, the Joanna Briggs Institute checklist was used.
Results: Seven of fourteen studies (50 percent) showed that there is an association between ELF field exposure and cardiovascular outcomes. However, the available evidence is insufficient to establish causality. Some of the outcomes reported in the studies included acute myocardial infarction, arrhythmia, hematological parameters, coronary heart disease, and hypertension.
Conclusion: Exposure to ELF fields may be associated with some cardiovascular outcomes. However, the confirmation of this relationship remains ambiguous, and it requires further investigations in future research.
Excerpt
Extremely low-frequency (ELF) electromagnetic fields are a type of electromagnetic field with frequencies from 1 to 300 Hz [1]. Exposure to these waves is common in occupational environments because it can occur during production, transfer, distribution, and use of electricity [2]. Some effects due to exposure to ELF electromagnetic fields include cerebral cancer, bladder cancer, breast cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, behavioral and mental problems, sleep and wake rhythm disorder, and changes in perception and memory [3]. Compared with these outcomes, the possible cardiovascular effects of ELF exposure have received less attention and remain less clearly understood [4].
Conclusions
An association between occupational exposure to ELF electromagnetic fields and cardiovascular outcomes was reported in seven of the 14 studies included in this review. However, the findings were not consistent across the studies, and the current evidence is not sufficient to confirm a causal relationship. The differences in the results of the studies could be because of differences in exposure frequency, exposure duration, and exposure level to the ELF field. Some studies reported associations with acute myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease, arrhythmia, blood pressure, and other cardiovascular-related changes, whereas others found no significant effects. Therefore, although a possible relationship between occupational ELF exposure and cardiovascular health cannot be ruled out, the strength and clinical importance of this association remain uncertain. The findings of this research may be useful to plan strategies to prevent cardiovascular diseases in different settings. However, more studies are needed to investigate the effect of the ELF electromagnetic field with the mentioned characteristics in various environments to confirm these results. Moreover, some confounding factors, such as personal, occupational risk, and psychosocial factors, may influence this association. The roles of these factors must be considered in future studies. Also, differences in these effects between various people with different factors should be examined in future research.
Problem. In Ukraine, the current sanitary protection zones (SPZ) and right-of-way (ROW) zones of overhead power lines (OHLs), within which the construction of residential buildings is prohibited, are established by regulatory legal acts solely based on the criterion of electric field (EF) strength, without taking into account magnetic field (MF) flux density. This situation poses a serious threat to the health of the population living near OHLs, since, unlike the EF, the MF has a significantly higher penetrating capacity and, under conditions of long-term exposure, exhibits carcinogenic properties. Furthermore, the features of MF distribution outside the current OHL ROW zones remain insufficiently studied. This creates risks of widespread population exposure exceeding the maximum permissible level of the MF.
Goal. Substantiation of the boundaries of SPZ for designed 0.4–330 kV OHLs based on the regulatory MF flux density level of 0.5 μT, and the development of rational methods for normalizing the MF level of existing OHLs.
Methodology. A comprehensive combination of theoretical and experimental studies of the MF flux density distribution of 0.4–330 kV OHLs outside their current ROW zones, as well as a comparative sanitary and hygienic assessment of the obtained data.
Results. The necessity of expanding the boundaries of ROW (SPZ) zones for 110–330 kV OHLs and utilizing developed «magnetically clean» OHLs to ensure the protection of public health from MFs has been substantiated.
Scientific novelty. It has been theoretically proven and experimentally confirmed that it is the MFflux density, rather than the EF strength, that is the determining factor for establishing safe boundaries of OHL SPZ. The necessity of establishing the SPZ width at 30 m for 110 kV OHLs and 83 m for 330 kV OHLs is substantiated. The synthesis of «magnetically clean» OHLs based on the method of vector MF compensation has been performed. Practical value. Practical recommendations have been developed for normalizing OHL MF flux density by increasing the width of the SPZ (PZ) for 110-330 kV OHLs, and constructing synthesized «magnetically clean» OHLs for their local use in critical areas during the modernization of existing legacy OHLs. References 56, tables 3, figures 11.
Electromagnetic exposure safety assessment of electromagnetic security gates: a review
Bai W, Lu M. Electromagnetic exposure safety assessment of electromagnetic security gates: a review. Front Public Health. 2026 Sep 18;14:1935419. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2026.1935419.
Abstract
In this review, electromagnetic security gates include walk-through metal detectors (WTMDs), electronic article surveillance (EAS) systems, radio-frequency identification (RFID) systems, and millimeter-wave (MMW) security screening systems. These technologies are widely used in public-security screening, theft prevention, access control, and industrial inspection, making electromagnetic-exposure safety a public-health concern. This review traces their technological development, summarizes operating principles and emission characteristics, and examines potential biological effects of electromagnetic-field exposure. It also reviews exposure-assessment methods and applies an adapted evidence-appraisal framework to synthesize experimental, numerical, and epidemiological evidence, evaluate interactions with active medical devices and passive metallic implants, and assess evidence strength and limitations. Particular attention is given to potentially susceptible populations and frequency-specific exposure metrics. Major evidence gaps and future research priorities are identified.
All life on Earth shares an evolution that is coupled to specific environmental conditions, including the geomagnetic field, which would suggest that biological materials have evolved some degree of magnetic sensitivity. Mounting evidence supports the idea that living organisms can detect and respond to weak magnetic fields, and the radical pair mechanism provides a plausible quantum-level basis for magnetic field sensitivity in biological processes. In the context of evolution, however, fundamental questions remain. How does natural selection act on quantum phenomena such as spin dynamics? What evolutionary pressures have tuned or preserved magnetic sensitivity at the quantum level? In this paper, we offer some potential answers, by closer inspection of the spin Hamiltonian central to the radical pair mechanism. We focus on the fact that hyperfine coupling constants are determined by the local protein environment, which is specified by genetic sequence. Variations in these parameters can alter reactive oxygen species (ROS) outcomes, providing a potential pathway by which quantum-level effects influence organism fitness and possible selection. As proof of principle, we employ a simple qualitative model to demonstrate how variations in nuclear spin, hyperfine coupling strength, and anisotropy might alter ROS levels under different magnetic field conditions. Although these ideas remain speculative, they suggest a framework for investigating how magnetic environments may have influenced the evolution of biological function, with implications for health, disease, and adaptation to altered magnetic environments.
Open access: https://spj.science.
--
Magnetoreception, flexible use of cues and low-information navigation in animals
Lohmann KJ, Gill JP, Taylor BK, Lohmann CMF. Magnetoreception, flexible use of cues and low-information navigation in animals. J Exp Biol. 2026 Oct 1;229(19):jeb252932. doi: 10.1242/jeb.252932.
Abstract
Magnetoreception - the ability to detect Earth's magnetic field - is widespread among animals. Despite recent progress, fundamental gaps in our knowledge remain. The two main goals of modern magnetoreception research are to: (1) understand how magnetic information is used by animals in navigation; and (2) uncover the biophysical mechanisms that underlie magnetic field detection. The discovery that animals use magnetic information not only as a directional (compass) cue, but also as a kind of 'map', has revolutionized research in animal navigation. Recent findings suggest that animals use magnetic cues flexibly and idiosyncratically to help guide spatial movements. We propose that a valuable but seldom used approach to studying animal movements is to consider ways in which seemingly complex navigational feats can be accomplished with minimal information, often without the need for classical map-and-compass navigation, a cognitive representation of the environment, or prior knowledge of the terrain. We also used a recently developed model to demonstrate that natural selection can potentially 'tune' magnetic navigation systems to optimize navigation in different parts of the world, and we illustrate the possibility with examples of long-distance migrations by sea turtles, fishes and birds. Emerging evidence further implies that there are multiple magnetoreceptive mechanisms rather than a single, universal way of sensing magnetic fields. We argue that the path forward, for both unraveling animal navigation and elucidating mechanisms of magnetoreception, requires a thoughtful balance between a search for unifying principles and an expectation of major differences among species and populations.
Objective This review systematically evaluated evidence on the associations between maternal mobile phone use—specifically frequency and duration—and pregnancy outcomes.
Methods Comprehensive PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar searches identified 20 studies meeting the predetermined inclusion criteria. Covidence was used for title and abstract screening.
Results While several studies reported no significant health threat, others suggested an association with adverse pregnancy outcomes. The most consistent evidence emerged for alterations in fetal and neonatal cardiac function and increased risk of preterm birth, highlighting a need for further targeted research on system-specific vulnerabilities.
Impact Despite the widespread use of mobile phones, the adverse effects of RF-EMF exposure remain poorly understood, especially among susceptible populations, such as pregnant women. This study synthesizes human evidence to inform the general public, clinicians, researchers, patients, and policymakers about the potential risks associated with prenatal RF-EMF exposure. Although findings remain inconclusive, the evidence suggests possible effects on fetal cardiac function and gestational duration. By identifying methodological limitations and research gaps, this review highlights the need for standardized exposure assessment and well-designed prospective studies to enable more definitive risk evaluation and guide evidence-based recommendations for safer prenatal mobile phone use.
This review systematically evaluates the available literature regarding the health impacts of mobile phone use during pregnancy. While some studies report no significant effects, others suggest potential risks such as cardiovascular abnormalities and shorter gestational duration. Potential mechanisms like RF-EMF-induced oxidative stress may underlie these adverse health outcomes. Notably, all non-randomized studies showed serious or critical risk of bias, and the randomized studies ranged from some concerns to high risk, so findings should be interpreted with caution. Future research should prioritize well-designed cohort studies with standardized exposure assessments to clarify these associations. Because of the rapid evolution of mobile phone technology and increased frequency and duration of mobile phone usage, understanding the long-term impacts of RF-EMF exposure on maternal and fetal health remains critical. While agencies like the NIH and CDC note that benefits generally outweigh risks, the emerging evidence may support precautionary measures to reduce mobile phone usage during pregnancy, particularly among high-risk pregnant women. Simple interventions, such as using speakerphones or wired headsets, keeping phones away from the abdomen, and enabling airplane mode during inactivity, may be suggested during biologically sensitive periods. Due to the inherent limitations of the primary studies reviewed in this manuscript, any definitive conclusions or recommendations will require more rigorous studies with clearly defined and quantified exposures and health outcomes.