The emergence of 5G, fifth-generation telecommunications technology, has been in the news lately because the wireless industry has been pushing controversial
legislation at the state and federal level to expedite the deployment of this technology.
The legislation would block the rights of local governments and their citizens
to control the installation of cellular antennas in the public “right-of-way.” Cell antennas may be installed on public utility poles every 10-20 houses in urban areas. According to the industry, as many as 50,000 new cell sites will be required in California and 800,000 or more new cell sites nationwide.
Although
many major cities and newspapers have
opposed this legislation,
the potential health risks from the proliferation of new cellular antenna sites
have been ignored. These cell antennas will expose the population to new sources
of radio frequency radiation including millimeter waves in addition to microwaves.
5G
will employ low- (0.6 GHz - 3.7 GHz), mid- (3.7 – 24 GHz), and high-band
frequencies (24 GHz and higher). In
the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has allocated “low-band”
spectrum at 0.6 GHz (e.g., 600 MHz), “mid-band” spectrum in the 3.5 GHz range, and 11 GHz
of “high-band” frequencies including licensed spectrum from 27.5-28.35 GHz and
37-40 GHz, as well as unlicensed spectrum from 64-71 GHz which is open to all
wireless equipment manufacturers.
Prior
to widespread deployment, major cell phone carriers are experimenting with new
technologies that employ “high-band” frequencies in communities across the
country. The “high-band” frequencies largely consist of millimeter waves (MMWs),
a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths of one to ten millimeters
and frequencies ranging from 30 to 300 GHz (or billions of cycles per
second).
The
characteristics of MMWs are different than the “low-band” (i.e., microwave) frequencies
which are currently in use by the cellular and wireless industries. MMWs can
transmit large amounts of data over short distances. The transmissions can be
directed into narrow beams that travel by line-of-sight and can move data at
high rates (e.g., up to 10 billion bits per second) with short lags (or
latencies) between transmissions. The signals are blocked by buildings, and
foliage can absorb much of their energy. Also, the waves can be reflected by
metallic surfaces. Although antennas can be as small as a few millimeters,
“small cell” antenna arrays may consist of dozens or even hundreds of antenna
elements.
What does research tell
us about the biologic and health effects of millimeter waves?
Millimeter
waves (MMWs) are mostly absorbed within 1 to 2 millimeters of human skin and in the
surface layers of the cornea. Thus, the skin or near-surface zones of tissues
are the primary targets of the radiation. Since skin contains capillaries and
nerve endings, MMW bio-effects may be transmitted through molecular mechanisms by
the skin or through the nervous system.
Thermal
(or heating) effects occur when the power density of the waves is above 5–10
mW/cm2. Such high-intensity MMWs act on human skin and the cornea in
a dose-dependent manner—beginning with heat sensation followed by pain and
physical damage at higher exposures. Temperature elevation can impact the growth,
morphology and metabolism of cells, induce production of free radicals, and damage
DNA.
The
maximum permissible exposure that the FCC permits for the general public is 1.0
mW/cm2 averaged over 30 minutes for frequencies that range from 1.5
GHz to 100 GHz. This guideline was adopted in 1996 to protect humans from acute
exposure to thermal levels of radiofrequency radiation. However, the guidelines
were not designed to protect us from nonthermal risks that may occur with
prolonged or long-term exposure to radiofrequency radiation.
With
the deployment of fifth generation wireless infrastructure (aka 5G), much of the nation will be exposed
to MMWs for the first time on a continuous basis. Due to FCC guidelines, these
exposures will likely be of low intensity. Hence, the health consequences of 5G exposure will be limited to non-thermal
effects produced by prolonged exposure to MMWs in conjunction with exposure to
low- and mid-band radiofrequency radiation.
Unfortunately,
few studies have examined prolonged exposure to low-intensity MMWs, and no
research that I am aware of has focused on exposure to MMWs combined with other
radiofrequency radiation.
Although
biologic effects of low-intensity MMWs have been studied for decades,
particularly in Eastern Europe, study results are often inconsistent because
the effects are related to many factors including the frequency, modulation, power
density, and duration of the exposures, as well as the type of tissue or cells
being investigated.
Results vary
across studies—MMWs have been shown to induce or inhibit cell death and enhance
or suppress cell proliferation. Some studies found that the radiation inhibits cell
cycle progression, and some studies reported no biologic effects (Le Drean et
al., 2013)
A review of
the research in 2010 noted that “A large number of cellular studies have indicated
that MMW may alter structural and functional properties of membranes.” Exposure
to MMWs may affect the plasma membrane either by modifying ion channel activity
or by modifying the phospholipid bilayer. Water molecules also seem to play a
role in these effects. Skin nerve endings are a likely target of MMWs and the
possible starting point of numerous biological effects. MMWs may activate the immune
system through stimulation of the peripheral neural system (Ramundo-Orlando,
2010).
In 1998, five scientists employed by U.S. Army and Air Force research institutes published a
seminal review of the research on MMWs. They reported:
“Increased
sensitivity and even hypersensitivity of individual specimens to MMW may be
real. Depending on the exposure characteristics, especially wavelength, a
low-intensity MMW radiation was perceived by 30 to 80% of healthy examinees
(Lebedeva, 1993, 1995). Some clinical studies reported MMW hypersensitivity,
which was or was not limited to a certain wavelength (Golovacheva, 1995).”
“It
is important to note that, even with the variety of bioeffects reported, no
studies have provided evidence that a low-intensity MMW radiation represents a
health hazard for human beings. Actually, none of the reviewed studies with
low-intensity MMW even pursued the evaluation of health risks, although in view
of numerous bioeffects and growing usage of MMW technologies this research
objective seems very reasonable. Such MMW effects as alterations of cell growth
rate and UV light sensitivity, biochemical and antibiotic resistivity changes
in pathogenic bacteria, as well as many others are of potential significance
for safety standards, but even local and short-term exposures were reported to
produce marked effects. It should also be realized that biological effects of a
prolonged or chronic MMW exposure of the whole body or a large body area have
never been investigated. Safety limits for these types of exposures are based
solely on predictions of energy deposition and MMW heating, but in view of
recent studies this approach is not necessarily adequate.” (Pakhomov et al.,
1998)
Microbes are
also affected by MMW radiation. In 2016 a review of the research on the effects
of MMWs on bacteria was published (Soghomonyan et al., 2016). The authors
summarized their findings as follows:
“…bacteria
and other cells might communicate with each other by electromagnetic field of
sub-extremely high frequency range. These MMW affected Escherichia coli and
many other bacteria, mainly depressing their growth and changing properties and
activity. These effects were non-thermal and depended on different factors. The
significant cellular targets for MMW effects could be water, cell plasma
membrane, and genome….The consequences of MMW interaction with bacteria are the
changes in their sensitivity to different biologically active chemicals,
including antibiotics….These effects are of significance for understanding
changed metabolic pathways and distinguish role of bacteria in environment;
they might be leading to antibiotic resistance in bacteria.”
“Changing the sensitivity
of bacteria to antibiotics by MMW irradiation can be important for the
understanding of antibiotic resistance in the environment. In this respect, it
is interesting that bacteria [that] survived near telecommunication-based
stations like Bacillus and Clostridium spp. have been found to be multidrug
resistant (Adebayo et al. 2014).” (Soghomonyan et al., 2016)
In sum, the
peer-reviewed research demonstrates that short-term exposure to low-intensity
millimeter wave (MMW) radiation not only affects human cells, it may result in
the growth of multi-drug resistant bacteria harmful to humans. Since little
research has been conducted on the health consequences from long-term exposure
to MMWs, widespread deployment of 5G or 5th generation wireless
infrastructure constitutes a massive experiment that may have adverse impacts
on the public’s health.
Early Russian research on millimeter radiation
Russian scientists conducted much of the early research on the effects of exposure to millimeter radiation. The U.S.Central Intelligence Agency collected and translated the published research but did not declassify it until decades later.
In 1977, N.P. Zalyubovskaya published a study, "Biological effects of millimeter waves," in a Russian-language journal, "Vracheboyne Delo." The CIA declassified this paper in 2012.
The study examined the effects of exposing mice to millimeter radiation (37-60 GHz; 1 milliwatt per square centimeter) for 15 minutes daily for 60 days. The animal results were compared to a sample of people working with millimeter generators.
Here is a brief summary of the paper:
Excerpts:
--
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---
Following are summaries of research reviews of the effects of MMW exposure and a list of recently published studies.
Millimeter Wave Research Reviews
(Updated August 15, 2023)
Dagli N, Dagli R; Thangavelu L. Interaction of Millimetre Waves Used in 5G Network with Cells and Tissues of Head-and-Neck Region: A Literature Review. Advances in Human Biology 13(2):p 168-176, Apr–Jun 2023. | DOI: 10.4103/aihb.aihb_133_22 .
Abstract
Fifth-generation mobile technology is supposed to revolutionise the
world. It has many features which can benefit humankind, but at the same
time, it will expose us to much radiation. Therefore, we need to
understand the importance and ill effects of 5 G technology. An online
literature search was conducted through PubMed and Scopus databases from
April 2021 to May 2021, using the Boolean operators OR, AND and NOT and
the keywords ‘5G Network’,
‘Human tissues’, and ‘Animal tissues’. The literature is very scarce in
studies on the effects of millimetre waves on various tissues. A total
of 1269 studies were identified, and 24 were selected for qualitative
evidence synthesis. Randomised control trials, laboratory studies,
in-vitro studies, in-vivo studies and ex-vivo studies were included.
Data from the studies were collected using the data extraction form, and
all the relevant information was summarized. Five of 24 studies were
done on animals, four on humans, five on models, and ten on various
cells. Ten of 24 studies demonstrated the harmful effects of millimetre
waves. Results are ambivalent, and no association is found between
particular frequency and impact on tissue, animals or humans.
Pathophysiological effects observed in most studies were mild,
reversible, and limited to the cellular level. Available evidence
reported temperature rise after millimetre wave exposure, which was
within safety limits. Any biological impact on a cellular level noticed
due to radiation’s thermal effects were insignificant and did not affect
the organ level. However, only a few studies have mentioned non-thermal
impact, but those effects should not be overlooked. Clinical trials on a
large population and for a longer duration are required to establish
the safety of millimetre waves before deploying a 5G network worldwide.
Conclusion
Very few studies published related to the effects of millimetre waves on various tissues. Therefore, it is very difficult to reach a clear conclusion. Available evidence suggests that heating effects in tissues due to MMW exposure cause temperature rise. However, the temperature rise was found to be within safety limits for the short duration of exposure, but biological effects on the cellular level were observed in a few studies. It is unclear how these changes will affect organs or individuals when the population is exposed to radiation continuously for a lifetime. Very few studies have shown harmful non-thermal effects too. These effects should not be overlooked. Special attention should be paid to the tissues of the head and neck region as they are in close proximity to electromagnetic devices. More research is required to confirm those findings and the chronic thermal and non-thermal effects of MMW and to establish safety before the deployment of 5G networks all over the world. Technological advancement is necessary for human race development but not at the cost of our health. We need to limit the use of certain frequencies at workplaces where a high amount of data is required to be transferred at high speed and find the safest frequency for widespread use so that our environment and the next generations can be protected from hazardous effects.
Future study recommendation
Very few studies have been done on the effects of millimetre waves on humans. Clinical trials on a large population and for longer duration are required to establish the safety of millimetre waves before the 5G network roll out all over the world. The effect of other environmental toxic stimuli should be considered while studying the effect of MMW. Other factors that affect the absorption of MMW, such as the shadowing effect, reflection from surrounding tissues, angle of a screen of a device, thickness of skin and the water content of the skin should be considered.
--
Martin L Pall.
Millimeter (MM) wave and microwave frequency radiation produce deeply penetrating effects: the biology and the physics.
Rev Environ Health. 2021 May 26. doi: 10.1515/reveh-2020-0165.
Millimeter wave (MM-wave) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) are predicted to not produce penetrating effects in the body. The electric but not magnetic part of MM-EMFs are almost completely absorbed within the outer 1 mm of the body. Rodents are reported to have penetrating MM-wave impacts on the brain, the myocardium, liver, kidney and bone marrow. MM-waves produce electromagnetic sensitivity-like changes in rodent, frog and skate tissues. In humans, MM-waves have penetrating effects including impacts on the brain, producing EEG changes and other neurological/neuropsychiatric changes, increases in apparent electromagnetic hypersensitivity and produce changes on ulcers and cardiac activity. This review focuses on several issues required to understand penetrating effects of MM-waves and microwaves: 1. Electronically generated EMFs are coherent, producing much higher electrical and magnetic forces then do natural incoherent EMFs. 2. The fixed relationship between electrical and magnetic fields found in EMFs in a vacuum or highly permeable medium such as air, predicted by Maxwell's equations, breaks down in other materials. Specifically, MM-wave electrical fields are almost completely absorbed in the outer 1 mm of the body due to the high dielectric constant of biological aqueous phases. However, the magnetic fields are very highly penetrating. 3. Time-varying magnetic fields have central roles in producing highly penetrating effects. The primary mechanism of EMF action is voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) activation with the EMFs acting via their forces on the voltage sensor, rather than by depolarization of the plasma membrane. Two distinct mechanisms, an indirect and a direct mechanism, are consistent with and predicted by the physics, to explain penetrating MM-wave VGCC activation via the voltage sensor. Time-varying coherent magnetic fields, as predicted by the Maxwell-Faraday version of Faraday's law of induction, can put forces on ions dissolved in aqueous phases deep within the body, regenerating coherent electric fields which activate the VGCC voltage sensor. In addition, time-varying magnetic fields can directly put forces on the 20 charges in the VGCC voltage sensor. There are three very important findings here which are rarely recognized in the EMF scientific literature: coherence of electronically generated EMFs; the key role of time-varying magnetic fields in generating highly penetrating effects; the key role of both modulating and pure EMF pulses in greatly increasing very short term high level time-variation of magnetic and electric fields. It is probable that genuine safety guidelines must keep nanosecond timescale-variation of coherent electric and magnetic fields below some maximum level in order to produce genuine safety. These findings have important implications with regard to 5G radiation.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34043892/
--
Dariusz Leszczynski. Physiological effects of millimeter-waves on skin and skin
cells: an overview of the to-date published studies.
Reviews on Environmental Health. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-
Abstract
The currently ongoing deployment of the fifth generation of the wireless communication technology, 5G technology, has reignited the health debate around the new kind of radiation that will be used/emitted by 5G devices and networks – the millimeter-waves. The new aspect of 5G technology, that is of concern to some of the future users, is that both, antennas and devices will be continuously in a very close proximity of the users’ bodies. Skin is the only organ of the human body, besides the eyes, that will be directly exposed to the mm-waves of 5G technology. However, the whole scientific evidence on the possible effects of millimeter-waves on skin and skin cells, currently consists of only some 99 studies. This clearly indicates that the scientific evidence concerning the possible effects of millimeter-waves on humans is insufficient to devise science-based exposure limits and to develop science-based human health policies. The sufficient research has not been done and, therefore, precautionary measures should be considered for the deployment of 5G, before the sufficient number of quality research studies will be executed and health risk, or lack of it, scientifically established.
Excerpt
Therefore, the recently published guidelines by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) [103],
stating that the ICNIRP proposed mm-waves radiation exposure limits are
protecting users form health effects of mm-waves are only an assumption
that is not sufficiently based on scientific evidence because the
research on effects of mm-waves on skin has not been performed. This is
why any claims, including ICNIRP’s, that the current safety limits
protect all users, no matter of their age or their health status, have
no sufficient scientific basis. The safety limits that are suggested to
protect from health effects of mm-waves are based on scientifically
unsupported assumptions as seen from the evidence presented in Tables 1– 4.
--
Alekseev SI, Ziskin MC. Biological effects of millimeter and submillimeter waves. Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields (B. Greenebaum and F. Barnes, editors), 4th ed., Chapter 6, pp. 179-242, 2019, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
--
Belyaev IY,
Shcheglov
VS, Alipov
ED, Ushakov
VD. Nonthermal effects of extremely high-frequency microwaves
on chromatin conformation in cells in vitro—Dependence on physical, physiological,
and genetic factors. IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques. 2000; 48(11):2172-2179.
Abstract
There is a substantial number of studies showing biological
effects of microwaves of extremely high-frequency range [i.e., millimeter waves
(MMWs)] at nonthermal intensities, but poor reproducibility was reported in few
replication studies. One possible explanation could be the dependence of the
MMW effects on some parameters, which were not controlled in replications. The
authors studied MMW effects on chromatin conformation in Escherichia coli (E.
coli) cells and rat thymocytes. Strong dependence of MMW effects on frequency
and polarization was observed at nonthermal power densities. Several other
factors were important, such as the genotype of a strain under study, growth
stage of the bacterial cultures, and time between exposure to microwaves and
recording of the effect. MMW effects were dependent on cell density during
exposure. This finding suggested an interaction of microwaves with cell-to-cell
communication. Such dependence on several genetic, physiological, and physical
variables might be a reason why, in some studies, the authors failed to
reproduce the original data of others.
--
Le Drean Y, Mahamoud YS, Le Page Y, Habauzit D, Le Quement C, Zhadobov M, Sauleau R. State of knowledge on biological effects at 40–60 GHz. Comptes Rendus Physique. 2013; 14(5):402-411.
Abstract
Millimetre
waves correspond to the range of frequencies located between 30 and 300 GHz.
Many applications exist and are emerging in this band, including wireless
telecommunications, imaging and monitoring systems. In addition, some of these
frequencies are used in therapy in Eastern Europe, suggesting that interactions
with the human body are possible. This review aims to summarise current
knowledge on interactions between millimetre waves and living matter. Several
representative examples from the scientific literature are presented. Then,
possible mechanisms of interactions between millimetre waves and biological
systems are discussed.
--
Pakhomov AG, Akyel Y, Pakhomova ON, Stuck BE, Murphy MR. Current state and implications of research on biological effects of millimeter waves: a review of the literature. Bioelectromagnetics. 1998; 19(7):393-413.
In recent years, research into biological and medical effects of millimeter waves (MMW) has expanded greatly. This paper analyzes general trends in the area and briefly reviews the most significant publications, proceeding from cell-free systems, dosimetry, and spectroscopy issues through cultured cells and isolated organs to animals and humans. The studies reviewed demonstrate effects of low-intensity MMW (10 mW/cm2 and less) on cell growth and proliferation, activity of enzymes, state of cell genetic apparatus, function of excitable membranes, peripheral receptors, and other biological systems. In animals and humans, local MMW exposure stimulated tissue repair and regeneration, alleviated stress reactions, and facilitated recovery in a wide range of diseases (MMW therapy). Many reported MMW effects could not be readily explained by temperature changes during irradiation. The paper outlines some problems and uncertainties in the MMW research area, identifies tasks for future studies, and discusses possible implications for development of exposure safety criteria and guidelines.
Ramundo-Orlando
A. Effects of millimeter waves radiation on cell membrane - A brief review.
Journal of Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves. 2010; 31(12):1400–1411.
Abstract
The
millimeter waves (MMW) region of the electromagnetic spectrum, extending from
30 to 300 GHz in terms of frequency (corresponding to wavelengths from 10 mm to
1 mm), is officially used in non-invasive complementary medicine in many
Eastern European countries against a variety of diseases such gastro duodenal
ulcers, cardiovascular disorders, traumatism and tumor. On the other hand,
besides technological applications in traffic and military systems, in the near
future MMW will also find applications in high resolution and high-speed
wireless communication technology. This has led to restoring interest in
research on MMW induced biological effects. In this review emphasis has been
given to the MMW-induced effects on cell membranes that are considered the major
target for the interaction between MMW and biological systems.
Ryan KL,
D'Andrea JA, Jauchem JR, Mason PA. Radio frequency radiation of millimeter wave
length: potential occupational safety issues relating to surface heating. Health Phys. 2000; 78(2):170-81.
Abstract
Currently,
technology is being developed that makes use of the millimeter wave (MMW) range
(30-300 GHz) of the radio frequency region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As
more and more systems come on line and are used in everyday applications, the
possibility of inadvertent exposure of personnel to MMWs increases. To date,
there has been no published discussion regarding the health effects of MMWs;
this review attempts to fill that void. Because of the shallow depth of
penetration, the energy and, therefore, heat associated with MMWs will be
deposited within the first 1-2 mm of human skin. MMWs have been used in states
of the former Soviet Union to provide therapeutic benefit in a number of
diverse disease states, including skin disorders, gastric ulcers, heart disease
and cancer. Conversely, the possibility exists that hazards might be associated
with accidental overexposure to MMWs. This review attempts to critically
analyze the likelihood of such acute effects as burn and eye damage, as well as
potential long-term effects, including cancer.
Soghomonyan
D, Trchounian K, Trchounian A. Millimeter waves or extremely high frequency
electromagnetic fields in the environment: what are their effects on bacteria?
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2016; 100(11):4761-71. doi:
10.1007/s00253-016-7538-0.
Abstract
Millimeter
waves (MMW) or electromagnetic fields of extremely high frequencies at low
intensity is a new environmental factor, the level of which is increased as
technology advance. It is of interest that bacteria and other cells might
communicate with each other by electromagnetic field of sub-extremely high
frequency range. These MMW affected Escherichia coli and many other bacteria,
mainly depressing their growth and changing properties and activity. These
effects were non-thermal and depended on different factors. The significant
cellular targets for MMW effects could be water, cell plasma membrane, and
genome. The model for the MMW interaction with bacteria is suggested; a role of
the membrane-associated proton FOF1-ATPase, key enzyme of bioenergetic
relevance, is proposed. The consequences of MMW interaction with bacteria are
the changes in their sensitivity to different biologically active chemicals,
including antibiotics. Novel data on MMW effects on bacteria and their
sensitivity to different antibiotics are presented and discussed; the combined
action of MMW and antibiotics resulted with more strong effects. These effects
are of significance for understanding changed metabolic pathways and
distinguish role of bacteria in environment; they might be leading to
antibiotic resistance in bacteria. The effects might have applications in the
development of technique, therapeutic practices, and food protection
technology.
Torgomyan
H, Trchounian A. Bactericidal effects of low-intensity extremely high frequency
electromagnetic field: an overview with phenomenon, mechanisms, targets and
consequences. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2013; 39(1):102-11.
Abstract
Low-intensity
electromagnetic field (EMF) of extremely high frequencies is a widespread
environmental factor. This field is used in telecommunication systems,
therapeutic practices and food protection. Particularly, in medicine and food
industries EMF is used for its bactericidal effects. The significant targets of
cellular mechanisms for EMF effects at resonant frequencies in bacteria could
be water (H2O), cell membrane and genome. The changes in H2O
cluster structure and properties might be leading to increase of chemical
activity or hydration of proteins and other cellular structures. These effects
are likely to be specific and long-term. Moreover, cell membrane with its
surface characteristics, substance transport and energy-conversing processes is
also altered. Then, the genome is affected because the conformational changes
in DNA and the transition of bacterial pro-phages from lysogenic to lytic state
have been detected. The consequences for EMF interaction with bacteria are the
changes in their sensitivity to different chemicals, including antibiotics.
These effects are important to understand distinguishing role of bacteria in
environment, leading to changed metabolic pathways in bacteria and their
antibiotic resistance. This EMF may also affect the cell-to-cell interactions
in bacterial populations, since bacteria might interact with each other through
EMF of sub-extremely high frequency range.
Betskii OV , Devyatkov ND, Kislov VV. Low intensity millimeter waves in medicine and biology. Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 2000;28(1-2):247-68.
Abstract
This paper provides evidence on the interaction of objects. Basic regularities of that interaction are discussed.
Conclusions
Summarizing the results of the 30-year study of biological effects of low-intensity MM waves, we may ascertain the following. As it often happens, applied research and commercialization have outdistanced fundamental investigations. The wide application of MM waves in medicine, biotechnology, animal husbandry, and plant cultivation has taken a giant step forward. By this time, Russia has manufactured more than 10,000 MM-wave therapy devices, organized more than 2,500 MM-wave therapy rooms, and treated over 2,500,000 patients....
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10999395
Open access version of paper: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d0f5/d75d92b7fb8f4d13ae5461e26afa62e87e60.pdf
See also:
May EC, Faith LV. The effects of electromagnetic radiation on biological systems: Current status in the former Soviet Union. Science Applications International Corporation. Presented to US Government, Feb 26, 1993. Approved for release by US Central Intelligence Agency, Aug 10, 2000. https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP96-00792R000100070001-9.pdf
Recent Millimeter Wave
Studies
(Last Update: July 13, 2022)
(Last Update: July 13, 2022)
Banday Y, Rather GM, Begh Gh R. Effect of atmospheric absorption on millimetre wave frequencies for 5G cellular networks. IET Commun. 2019. 13(3):265-270. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-com.2018.5044
Bantysh BB, Krylov AY, Subbotina TI, et al.
Peculiar effects of electromagnetic millimeter waves on tumor development in BALB/c mice. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2018 Sep;165(5):692-694. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30225701
Christ A, Samaras T, Neufeld E, Kuster N. RF-induced temperature increase in a stratified model of the skin for plane-wave exposure at 6-100 GHz. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2020 Jan 16. pii: ncz293. doi: 10.1093/rpd/ncz293. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31950182
Dilli R. Implications of mmWave radiation on human health: State of the art threshold levels. IEEE Access. 18 January 2021. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3052387. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9328127
Foster KR, Ziskin MC, Balzano Q. Thermal response of human skin to microwave energy: A critical review. Health Phys. 2016; 111(6):528-541. (Note: This work was sponsored by the Mobile Manufacturers Forum. The authors state that MMF had no control over the contents.) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27798477
Gajda GB, Lemay E, Paradis J. Model of Steady-state Temperature Rise in Multilayer Tissues Due to Narrow-beam Millimeter-wave Radiofrequency Field Exposure. Health Phys. 2019 Feb 15. doi: 10.1097/HP.0000000000001036. https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=31125321
Gandhi OP, Riazi A. Absorption of millimeter waves by human
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Haas AJ, Le Page Y, Zhadobov M, et al. Effect of acute millimeter wave exposure on dopamine metabolism of NGF-treated
PC12 cells. J Radiat Res. 2017 Feb 24:1-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28339776
He W, Xu B, Yao Y, Colombi D, Ying Z, He S.
Implications of incident power density limits on power and EIRP Levels of 5G millimeter-wave user equipment. IEEE Access. 10 Aug 2020. Open access paper: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=9163106
Héliot F, Loh TH, Cheadle D, Gui Y, Dieudonne M. An Empirical
Study of the Stochastic Nature of Electromagnetic Field Exposure in
Massive MIMO Systems. IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp. 63100-63112, 2022, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3182236. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9794655
Hovnanyan K, Kalantaryan V, Trchounian A. The distinguishing
effects of low intensity electromagnetic radiation of different extremely high
frequences on Enterococcus hirae: growth rate inhibition and scanning electron
microscopy analysis. Lett Appl Microbiol. 2017. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28609553
Kojima M, Tsai C-Y, Suzuki Y, et al. Ocular response to millimeter wave exposure under different humidity levels. J Infrared Millimeter Terahertz Waves. 40(5):474-484. 2019. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10762-019-00586-0
Koyama S, Narita E, Shimizu Y, et al. Effects of long-term exposure to 60 GHz millimeter-wavelength radiation
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